Problems with detecting assumed mediation using the hierarchical multiple regression strategy

In human resource management (HRM) and allied fields (e.g., organizational behavior, management, and industrial and organizational psychology), tests of mediation are frequently conducted using the hierarchical multiple regression (HMR) strategy of Baron and Kenny [Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator–mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173–1182]. Although previous research has identified a number of serious problems with this approach, the present study adds to the literature by identifying yet additional problems with its use in inferring the existence of mediation. Using a statistical simulation, we found that certain patterns of correlation coefficients guarantee inferences about mediation, whereas other patterns preclude such inferences. On the basis of various analyses including logistic regression and inspection of three-dimensional plots, we identified patterns of correlation coefficients needed to satisfy Baron and Kenny's [Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator–mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173–1182] conditions for inferring mediation. The same patterns have no necessary relation to actual causal connections among variables in mediation models. Moreover, as a consequence of the failure of the HMR strategy to detect mediating effects, many instances of actual mediation in HRM and allied fields may have gone undetected. In view of the foregoing, we conclude that the HMR strategy should no longer be used in testing for mediation.     

Poisson Regression for Clustered Data

We compare five methods for parameter estimation of a Poisson regression model for clustered data: (1) ordinary (naive) Poisson regression (OP), which ignores intracluster correlation, (2) Poisson regression with fixed cluster‐specific intercepts (FI), (3) a generalized estimating equations (GEE) approach with an equi‐correlation matrix, (4) an exact generalized estimating equations (EGEE) approach with an exact covariance matrix, and (5) maximum likelihood (ML). Special attention is given to the simplest case of the Poisson regression with a cluster‐specific intercept random when the asymptotic covariance matrix is obtained in closed form. We prove that methods 1–5, except GEE, produce the same estimates of slope coefficients for balanced data (an equal number of observations in each cluster and the same vectors of covariates). All five methods lead to consistent estimates of slopes but have different efficiency for unbalanced data design. It is shown that the FI approach can be derived as a limiting case of maximum likelihood when the cluster variance increases to infinity. Exact asymptotic covariance matrices are derived for each method. In terms of asymptotic efficiency, the methods split into two groups: OP & GEE and EGEE & FI & ML. Thus, contrary to the existing practice, there is no advantage in using GEE because it is substantially outperformed by EGEE and FI. In particular, EGEE does not require integration and is easy to compute with the asymptotic variances of the slope estimates close to those of the ML.     

ROBOT–BRAND FIT THE INFLUENCE OF BRAND PERSONALITY ON CONSUMER REACTIONS TO SERVICE ROBOT ADOPTION

Marketing Letters - Can every brand benefit from adopting service robots? To tackle this important question, we examined the interactive effects of brand personality (sincere vs. exciting) and...     

Technology gap,imported capital goods and productivity of manufacturing plants in Sub-Saharan Africa

This paper uses firm-level data from Ghana, Tanzania and Kenya to examine the effect of capital goods imports on domestic firms' productivity, and the role firms' technology gap plays in aiding the transmission of knowledge embodied in capital goods to domestic firms. The results show that increasing imports of capital goods and closing technology gaps have positive effects on productivity. Furthermore, domestic firms with technology standards farther from international best practices benefit more from capital goods imports. The results also imply that trade liberalization policy aimed at eliminating tariffs on capital goods will significantly improve the performance of technically incompetent firms in the African manufacturing sector.     

The relationship between multinationality and performance: Knowledge-intensive vs. capital-intensive service micro-multinational enterprises

This research explores the relationship between multinationality and firm performance (M-P) in the context of micro-multinational enterprises (mMNEs) within the service sector. We examine the moderating effects of industry characteristics using a data set of 1082 Spanish service mMNEs over an eight-year period. The empirical results provide statistical evidence that knowledge-intensive service mMNEs exhibit an inverted U-shaped M-P relationship, while capital-intensive service mMNEs present a U-shaped relationship. Our findings demonstrate that knowledge-intensive service mMNEs increase their performance in the initial stage of multinationality, encounter a threshold of internationalization at relatively low levels of multinationality and have a propensity to over-internationalize. By comparison, capital-intensive service mMNEs experience negative performance effects at low levels of multinationality and positive ones as they further internationalize. Given that their operations are scale-sensitive, they tend to expand internationally by concentrating their operations in few foreign markets as a means to overcome the liabilities of internationalization and smallness. We contribute to the literatures on multinationality research in the service sector and on SME internationalization by showing that the effects of multinationality on the performance of mMNEs depend on industry characteristics and that such contextual factors provide a better understanding of the M-P relationship.     

Consumers' Attitudes Towards Intermission Time Utilization In Movie Theatres

This article discusses the issue of cinema screen commercials and suggests that it should be considered within the context of movie theatre intermission time utilization, where the other alternatives are short, commercially sponsored films or illuminated theatres. A two-stage attitudinal survey of movie goers shows that the majority prefer to have something on the screen during intermission time. Respondents expressed negative attitudes towards cinema screen commercials, resulting in short, commercially sponsored films being the most preferred alternative. Negative attitudes do not imply agreement with the banning of commercials, nor a willingness to share its costs. The relative ranking of illuminated theatres over cinema screen commercials changed after respondents were exposed to the economic implications of their choice.     

Exploring the missing point of view in international advertising management: local managers in global advertising agencies

In the decades-long debates about whether standardised or adapted strategies are better for global brands, and whether centralised or decentralised international communications planning is more effective, little attention has been given to the perspective of local managers in the subsidiaries of global agencies. This paper reports on the experiences and opinions of account managers and creative directors in Korean subsidiaries, with regard to the international advertising policies of their agencies and clients. The authors find less centralisation than prior research has reported and yet more negative experiences with standardised global advertising. Creativity is a key consideration for the Korean managers, especially for products, be they consumer or industrial, that have universal demand. The perspective of subsidiary managers in multinational corporations should be considered in the advertising planning process in order to avoid conflict which could decrease the effectiveness of global campaigns.     

An acceptance model for an Internet protocol television service in Korea with prior experience as a moderator

This study examines the effect of users' prior experience on the adoption behaviour in the Internet protocol television (IP TV) service domains. This article proposes a new acceptance model for an IP TV service considering the moderating effect of experience and verifies the model with an empirical study. Respondents are classified into either experienced or inexperienced groups according to their prior experience with the IP TV service. The results indicate that motivational factors used in our study affect behavioural intention. In addition, this study shows that the influence of extrinsic motivational factors on the behavioural intention are stronger for the experienced group than the inexperienced group and the influence of intrinsic motivational factors on the behavioural intention are stronger for the inexperienced group than the experienced group. This article concludes with study implications, as well as limitations and future research directions.     

Reputation and product tampering in service industries

This theoretical paper aims to identify the role of trust and reputation between consumers and firms when there is product tampering or other types of product liability. When product tampering occurs, trust implicitly built towards brand or corporation by consumers or customers can be dissipated. This article assesses the impact of quality uncertainty and measurement costs on the trust relationship between consumers and corporations. The ideas are also applied to the case of bank runs. Preliminary findings indicate that in cases where the trust between consumer and firms is strong, and there are high measurement costs and uncertainty, the reputational relationship between customers and firms can experience strong repercussions.     

Service Orientation: Its Impact on Business Performance in the Medical Service Industry

From the viewpoint of internal marketing, employees who are content in their job may be motivated to satisfy their customers better than ones who are not content. Another relevant premise is that the content employees, because of their work motivation, would eventually help improve the performance of their firm. To verify these relationships, some previous studies looked into the effects of organisational service orientation on employee's satisfaction. But only few of them investigated the mediating effects of variables such as service value and customer orientation for their role in linking service orientation to business performance. This study examines how an organisation's service orientation had an effect on its performance at hospitals. For this purpose, verification of the mediating role of service value perceived by employees as well as the role of customer orientation on the firm's performance was attempted. For this study, a total of 292 usable questionnaires were collected from hospital staffs located in metropolitan cities of Korea. The hypotheses concerning relationships among service orientation, service value, employee satisfaction and customer orientation were verified by covariance structural modelling, using SPSS 10.0 and AMOS 4.0 programs. The result is as follows. First, organisational service orientation had a positive effect on both employee satisfaction and service value perceived by hospital staff. Second, employee satisfaction had a positive impact on service value and customer orientation. Finally, service value as well as employee's customer orientation were found to exert positive influence on the medical firm's performance.