历史的教训：逆向思维者胜

经济动荡期的管理是一种至关重要的商业能力。在经济低迷期，良好的企业管理不仅能够使企业的经营业绩优异于竞争对手，而且，在经济低迷期建立起来的竞争优势更具有可持续性。     

HR in the small business enterprise: Assessing the impact of PEO utilization

Within small businesses, organizational leaders are themselves often responsible for the HR function, an area where they typically have limited training and experience. Not surprisingly, small business leaders have raised concerns about the quality of HR programs in their firms and the fact that HR consumes scarce managerial time. While professional employer organizations (PEOs) emerged in response to such concerns, much controversy exists as to whether and how small businesses benefit from PEO utilization. Using a survey of more than 740 small businesses, we examine the relationship between PEO utilization and two key small business outcomes: managerial time required by HR activities and satisfaction with HR outcomes. Our results indicate that firms not using a PEO reported significantly lower levels of satisfaction with HR outcomes than firms that used a PEO for a limited set of transactional services and firms that used a PEO for both transactional and strategic HR services. Among firms using a PEO, satisfaction with HR outcomes was significantly higher among firms that obtained a broader set of transactional and strategic HR services. Firms that used a PEO also reported that HR consumed significantly less managerial time relative to leaders in firms that made no use of a PEO. However, there was no significant difference in the time demanded by HR between firms that used a limited set of transactional services and those that used a broader range of transactional and strategic services. Implications for the role of PEOs and their use within small businesses are discussed. © 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Obstacles to Developing Indigenous Small and Medium Enterprises: An Empirical Assessment

The article reports the results of field surveys conducted inSri Lanka's leather industry and Tanzania's furniture industry.It outlines an approach to learning how small and medium enterprises(SMES) perceive the impact of financial, regulatory, technical,marketing, and other input constraints, and to evaluating theresults in relation to other empirical indicators. Lack of accessto finance emerges as the binding constraint for smaller, lessestablished firms in Sri Lanka and for all of Tanzania's SMES—notonly is informal financing limited for Tanzania's firms, evenfirms of adequate size and experience have difficulty borrowingfrom banks, and, if they do borrow, have difficult relationswith their lenders. In Tanzania, regulatory and tax constraintsappear largest for the smallest firms, declining somewhat asfirms grow: because enforcement is comprehensive, the bureaucraticburden of negotiating with government officials is greatestfor small firms. By contrast, in Sri Lanka the regulatory burdenrises with firm size, because enforcement is more stringentfor the larger and more visible firms. Constraints on physicalinputs continue to inhibit Sri Lankan SMES—a legacy ofexcessive vertical integration by parastatals. Technical constraintsare appraised as most significant by relatively educated entrepreneurswith some involvement in high-quality market niches.     

Getting comfortable with the numbers: Auditing and the micro-production of macro-order

Field observations of two audit engagements are used to interpret auditing as a ritual which transforms the financial statements of corporate management from an inherently untrustworthy state into a form that the auditors and the public can be comfortable with. The analysis draws on Collins' theory of interaction ritual chains (American Journal of Sociology, 1981, pp. 984–1014) to create an interpretative theory of auditing which offers insights into both the micro-level interactions within the audit team and the macro-level role of auditing in the economic order.     

Service Sector Protection: Considerations for Developing Countries

The inclusion of services in the Uruguay Round of multilateraltrade negotiations has focused attention on the protection ofdomestic service suppliers against competition from foreignsuppliers. Issues arising from these negotiations, however,may obscure another and more important issue: the case for unilateralliberalization. This article first surveys methods of protectionin the service sector, and then examines the likely cost ofprotection. Particular attention is given to developing countries.What evidence there is suggests that the costs of protectionmay be high. The article also discusses economic principlesthat could guide a review of policy toward international transactionsin the service sector. Quantitative restrictions or bans onforeign service suppliers—whether they wish to supplythrough trade or establishment—cannot easily be defendedin economic terms, and provide an obvious first target.     

The Industrial Relations Journal and the European Community

British entry into the European Community creates the conditions in which, for good or ill, the country's political, economic and social arrangements could be transformed. This observation applies at least as strongly to industrial relations as to other aspects of the national life. Indeed, it may even be argued that change in industrial relations in itself not only encompasses and reflects the broader patterns of socio-cultural and economic change occurring in society as a whole, but also, on occasion, is instrumental in initiating far-reaching changes outside the immediate concerns of industrial relations. Hence, the study of industrial relations could reasonably be seen as a study of society itself, in that both are concerned with the myriad of adjustments, large and small, which need to be made in the continuous task of reconciling, or providing a framework for reconciling, conflicting interests. Certainly, the study of industrial relations in a European Community context offers academics a practical and definable way of understanding the processes of integration in the organization of which Britain is now an important member. As far as managements and trade unions are concerned, short of some unusual catastrophe befalling multinational corporations, there must increasingly be a need to understand industrial relations systems and ideologies in countries other than our own for the severely practical business of negotiating viable agreements. In short, for the purposes of academic work and the requirements of the practitioner, industrial relations needs increasingly to be researched and discussed in a transnational as well as a national context, even though the latter must remain a large part of the reality for a long time to come.     

Selling to the moneyed masses

Over the past decade, the distribution of household incomes has shifted so much that a much larger proportion of consumers now earn significantly higher-than-average incomes--while still falling short of being truly rich. As a result, what used to be a no-man's-land for new product introductions has in many categories become an extremely profitable "new middle ground." How can marketers capitalize on this new territory? The key, say the authors, is to rethink the positioning and design of offerings and the ways they can be brought to market. Take, for instance, how Procter & Gamble redefined the positioning map for tooth-whitening solutions. A decade ago, dental centers were popularizing expensive bleaching techniques that put the price of a professionally brightened smile in the 400 dollars range. At the low end, consumers also had the choice of whitening toothpastes that cost anywhere from 2 dollars to 8 dollars. P&G wisely positioned itself between the two ends, successfully targeting the new mass market with its 35 dollars Whitestrips. In product categories where it's clear the middle ground has already been populated, it's important for companies to design or redesign offerings to compete. An example is the Polo shirt. How do you sell a man yet another one after he's bought every color he wants? Add some features, and call it a golf shirt. Here, marketers have introduced designs based on the concept of "occasional use" in order to stand out. Finally, companies wishing to reach the "almost rich" can change how they go to market. Perhaps no mass retailer has made a stronger bid for the mass affluent than Target Stores, which has pioneered a focus the company itself characterizes as upscale discount. The strategy has made Target an everyday shopping phenomenon among well-heeled urbanites and prosperous professionals.     

The Disciplining Role of Accounting in the Long-Run

One role of accounting is to discipline softer (more manipulable) sources of information. We use a principal-agent model of hidden actions and hidden information to study this role. In our model, there is both a verifiable signal (a publicly observed output) and an unverifiable signal (a productivity parameter privately observed by the agent). In a one-period setting, the optimal contract does not make use of the agents report on the private signal. However, when the output is tracked over two periods, the agents communication can be valuable. This reversal of results suggests uncovering the disciplining role of accounting may require a long-term perspective.JEL Classification: D82, M41