The composition of capital inflows when emerging market firms face financing constraints

The composition of capital inflows to emerging market economies tends to follow a predictable dynamic pattern across the business cycle. In most emerging market economies, total inflows are pro-cyclical, with debt and portfolio equity flowing in first, followed later in the expansion by foreign direct investment (FDI). To understand the dynamic composition of these flows, we use a small open economy (SOE) framework to model the composition of capital inflows as the equilibrium outcome of emerging market firms' financing decisions. We show how costly external financing and FDI search costs generate a state contingent cost of financing such that the cheapest source of financing depends on the phase of the business cycle. In this manner, the financial frictions are able to explain the interaction between the types of flows and deliver a time-varying composition of flows, as well as other standard features of emerging market business cycles. If, as this work suggests, flows are an equilibrium outcome of firms' financing decisions, then volatility of capital inflows is not necessarily bad for an economy. Furthermore, using capital controls to shut down one type of flow and encourage another is certain to have both short- and long-run welfare implications.     

The impact of trade restrictions on U.S. apparel consumers

The loss incurred by U.S. apparel consumers in 1980 due to higher prices from tariffs and quotas was estimated. The price impact of tariffs was based on the ad valorem tariff rate while the price impact of quotas was based on estimated price differences between domestic and imported apparel at the same U.S. distribution level.Consumer losses in 1980 ranged from $10 billion to $12 billion depending on the price elasticity of demand for apparel and whether consumers or distributors received the scarcity rent generated by quotas. The increase in consumer expenditures due to higher prices accounted for the greatest proportion of consumer losses and ranged from 23% to 25% of total consumer expenditures for apparel depending on the allocation of the scarcity rent.While a reduction in trade restrictions would benefit consumers, such a reduction would also impose losses on firms and workers in the domestic apparel industry. However, there are other strategies for meeting competition from imports that would benefit producers as well as consumers.

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Einfuhrbeschränkungen aus Konsumentensicht — das Beispiel des US-amerikanischen Kleidungsmarktes

Zusammenfassung Die hohen amerikanischen Bekleidungseinfuhren der letzten 25 Jahre sind eine Folge der hohen Arbeitsintensität der Bekleidungsproduktion, die Ländern mit niedrigem Lohnniveau einen komparativen Vorteil bietet. Schon seit längerem sollen Zölle und Einfuhrmengen-Beschränkungen die amerikanische Bekleidungsindustrie schützen.Der vorliegende Beitrag versucht, die Verluste zu schätzen, die bei amerikanischen Käufern von Bekleidung im Jahre 1980 durch diejenigen Preiserhöhungen entstanden sind, die auf Zölle und Mengenbeschränkungen zurückzuführen sind. Die Schätzung der Preiswirkungen der Zölle knüpft unmittelbar an deren Beträge an, während die Schätzung der Preiswirkung der Mengenbeschränkungen an Preisunterschiede zwischen vergleichbaren heimischen Bekleidungsgütern und importierten Bekleidungsgütern anknüpft.Die auf diese Weise geschätzten Verbraucherverluste für das Jahr 1980 liegen zwischen 10 und 12 Milliarden Dollar (je nach der Höhe der Preiselastizität der Bekleidungsgüter-Nachfrage). Preisbedingte Ausgabenerhöhungen machen den größten Teil der Verbraucherverluste aus (ca. 23 bis 25% der gesamten Verbrauchsausgaben für Bekleidung).Die Analyse ist auf preisbedingte Verbraucherverluste beschränkt. Mögliche Einschränkungen der Wahlmöglichkeit durch Einfuhrbeschränkungen werden nicht erfaßt. Beispielsweise können Einfuhrmengen-Beschränkungen das Qualitätsspektrum der importierten Güter beeinflussen und zu einer Substitution besserer und teurerer Güter durch schlechtere Güter führen. Die Vernachlässigung solcher Wirkungen bedeutet, daß die im vorliegenden Beitrag quantifizierten Verbraucherverluste durch Einfuhrbeschränkungen unterschätzt sein dürften.Einerseits würde die Aufhebung von Einfuhrbeschränkungen den Verbrauchern nützen, andererseits würde sie jedoch der amerikanischen Bekleidungsindustrie Schaden bringen und zu Unternehmensschließungen und zu Arbeitslosigkeit führen. Strategien, um dem ausländischen Wettbewerb wirkungsvoll zu begegnen, liegen im Bereich neuer Produktionstechnologien, verbessertem Einsatz des Marketinginstrumentariums und vor allem im Bereich der Produktqualität. Solche Strategien würden sowohl der Industrie als auch den Konsumenten nützen, sie werden jedoch so lange unterdrückt, wie Handelsbeschränkungen auf anderem Wege einen Schutz gegen die Importkonkurrenz bieten.Das Beispiel zeigt die Divergenz von Produzenten- und Konsumenteninteressen bei Fragen des internationalen Handels. Diese Divergenz sollte für die Verbraucheraufklärung Anstoß sein, Konsumenten und ihre Organisationen auf die Vorteile des freien Handels aufmerksam zu machen, so daß sie ihren politischen Willen ebenso wirkungsvoll vorbringen wie Produzenten oder Arbeitnehmer.This paper is Scientific Article Number A-3731, Contribution Number 6707 of the Maryland Agricultural Experiment Station.

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Rachel Dardis is a Professor, and Katherine Cooke a Graduate Student, at the Department of Textiles and Consumer Economics, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, U.S.A.     

Human resource practices as communications and the psychological contract

This article examines the psychological contract and human resource practices as communications relevant to that contract. We argue that employees, at certain times only, systematically analyze their employers' HR practices for meaning vis-ri-vis their psychological contract. Judgments about the adequacy with which their psychological contracts are fulfilled result from such systematic analyses, and these judgments have important effects on employee commitment. Practical implications of our analysis are also discussed.     

Responsibility to Punish: Discouraging Free-Riders in Public Goods Games

This study employs a public goods game in which participants can punish each other for free-riding. This paper examines the motivation for punishment behavior when the situation is such that a rational individual will not punish. This paper predicts and finds evidence for the punishment of free-ridership, even when not punishing is the profit-maximizing strategy. Specifically, this paper finds participants will punish more when designated the sole punisher for a group, than when all group members are allowed to punish. This result implies that those individuals who punish for non-rational reasons often free-ride on each others’ punishment. Accordingly, the study suggests individual responsibility is important for ensuring the strength of institutions aimed at punishing selfish behavior.

Formal,Justice‐Oriented Voice in the Nonunion Firm: Who Speaks Up and When?

Employee willingness to exercise workplace voice has been the subject of much recent research. However, very different types of voice are observed within the workplace, with some forms of voice receiving limited scholarly attention. In particular, limited attention has been given to the determinants of formal, justice‐oriented voice within a nonunion context. Using a policy‐capturing design, we examine factors that affect decisions to use formal, justice‐oriented voice among 498 nonunion employees who had access to the same appeal procedure. The results suggest that this type of voice is affected by perceptions regarding immunity from negative managerial reactions to voice and also by factors associated with the utility of voice (e.g., the social power of those involved in the appeal and the evidence available to support the appeal). The results further suggest that perceived immunity moderates the impact of the social power of those involved in the appeal and the evidence available.     

Application and Assessment of an Ethics Presentation for Accounting and Business Classes

This paper describes a presentation on ethics for accounting and business students. In 2001 and 2002, major corporate failures such as Enron and Worldcom, combined with questionable accounting practices, made ethics a paramount concern to persons working in business and accounting. While financial statement analysis and regulatory requirements are important technical topics, the issue of ethics provides faculty a unique and very appropriate setting to discuss deeper truths about doing business and living life well. This paper briefly describes the development and assessment of one approach to presenting ethics built around a computerized slide show (PowerPoint). The goal of the presentation is to increase students’ understanding of the essential role of ethics to accounting and business. Following the presentation, students indicated a heightened recognition of the importance of ethics. Educators should do all that they can to encourage students to do the “right” thing, even in difficult circumstances. This encouragement may serve them well in school and later in their careers.