Two views on philanthropy: what does the future hold

What is the philanthropic outlook for the 1980's? Will giving be consistent with the decline of the dollar? How can non-profits deal with the skyrocketing costs of management and fund raising? These issues are surveyed in separate points of view from two leading philanthropic experts, drawn from their years of experience in the non-profit sector.     

Black banks: A survey and analysis of the literature

The analysis of the role of black banks in black economic development began in the early 1970s. At that time the focus was on the profitability of these institutions. Since then both the number of black banks and the research on their performance have increased significantly. This article reviews the recent literature on black banks in order to provide a conceptual framework for policies that will promote their growth and prosperity. The authors conclude that there is a clear need for future research in every area relating to black banks.     

The structural pattern of LDCs’ trade in manufactures with individual and groups of DCs

Zusammenfassung Die Struktur des Industriegüterhandels der Entwicklungsl?nder mit einzelnen Industriel?ndern oder Gruppen von Industriel?ndern. — In diesem Aufsatz wird eine Frage untersucht, die eine groΒe Bedeutung für die Stabilit?t des internationalen Handels hat: Ist die schnelle Ausdehnung der Industriegüterexporte der Entwicklungsl?nder so strukturiert, daΒ einige Industriel?nder in systematischer Weise ein Handelsbilanzdefizit und andere einen HandelsbilanzüberschuΒ aufweisen ? Falls ein solches Ungleichgewicht bestehen sollte: Worauf ist es zurückzuführen ? Die Bedeutung eines solchen Ph?nomens besteht darin, daΒ ohne ProtektionsmaΒnahmen der Industriel?nder die Exporte aus den Entwicklungsl?ndern wahrscheinlich weiterhin stark ansteigen würden. Abgesehen von ihrer Wirkung auf die langfristige Wechselkursentwicklung in den Industriel?ndern k?nnen dauerhafte Handelsbilanzdefizite protektionistische Tendenzen verst?rken, wie man bereits jetzt an dem sogenannten ?Neuen Protektionismus? erkennen kann.

---

Résumé La structure du commerce extérieur avec des biens manufacturiers entre les pays en voie de développement et les pays individuels développés et des groupes des pays développés. — Cet article examine une question qui est importante pour la stabilité du système international de commerce: Est-ce que l’expansion rapide des exportations manufacturières des pays en voie de développement vers les pays développés est structurée en telle manière qu’elle cause des déficits commerciaux systématiques dans quelques pays industriels et des surplus dans les autres ? S’il y ait un tel déséquilibre, quelles sont ses causes possibles ? L’importance d’un tel phénomène dérive du fait que dans l’absence de la protection augmentée des pays développés l’expansion des exportations des pays en voie de développement continuerait probablement d’un taux haut. En plus des effets sur les mouvements à long terme des taux de change des pays industriels, les déficits commerciaux continuants peut renforcer les tendances protectionnistes dans les pays déficitaires, comme déjà démontré par le dit ?protectionisme nouvel?.

---

Resumen La estructura del comercio en manufacturas entre países en desarollo y países desarollados, considerados estos últimos individualmente o en grupos. — Este trabajo investiga un problema con una influencia importante sobre la estabilidad del comercio internacional: Está estructurada la rápida expansión de los exportaciones de manufacturas de países en desarrollo a países desarrollados de tal forma que causa sistemáticamente déficits en la balanza commercial de algunos países industrializados y superávits en otros ? Si este tipo de desequilibrio existe, cuales ason sus posibles causeas ? La importancia de este fenómeno se deriva del hecho, de que en la absencia de proteccionismo por parte de los países desarrollados, es de esperar que la expansión las exportaciones de los países en desarrollo continuaría a un alto nivel. Además de su efecto sobre los movimientos a largo plazo en el tipo de cambio de los países industrializados, déficits persistentes en la balanza comercial pueden reforzar tendencias proteccionistas en estos países con déficits, como ha sido puesto en evidencia por lo que se conoce como el ?nuevo proteccionismo?.

     

Offshoring technology innovation: A case study of rare-earth technology

Many US firms are improving their individual competitiveness by offshoring manufacturing operations, services and, increasingly, knowledge work. Although research to date has maintained that these practices are beneficial to the offshoring firm and national economies, by reducing costs and expanding markets, little is known about the longer term effect of offshoring on the rate of innovation of home economies. This paper suggests that offshoring practices have adverse effects on innovation at the national home base. The analysis uses patents in the rare-earth element industry, a high-tech area which is among those that have evolved the furthest towards outsourcing and relocation away from the US and to developing countries. Looking at the rare-earth industry can provide insights in identifying potential long term impacts of offshoring on innovation because many other US industries are likely to adopt similar offshoring strategies.     

A comparison of the WHO and the UK codes of practice for the marketing of breastmilk substitutes

In 1981 the WHO approved a code of practice for the marketing of breastmilk substitutes, and in 1983 the UK Government sponsored the introduction by the manufacturers of a code which applied the WHO Code to the UK. The government used a drafting by sellers method which is almost identical to the procedure used by the Office of Fair Trading to draft the codes it sponsors. The text of the UK Code diverges from that of the WHO Code so that the present marketing mix for infant formula in the UK is protected: advertisements in the Health Service, informational materials for mothers, free samples for mothers, donations to Health Staff, an advisory service directly to mothers, and point of sale promotion. In effect, the UK Code renders the WHO Code inoperative in the UK.The comparison of the two codes suggests that the drafting by sellers procedure used for OFT-sponsored codes and adopted by the government for the UK Code of Practice for Infant Formula, results in codes that are weak ones from the point of view of the consumer. The drafting procedure eases the introduction of codes but also conserves the status quo in the market. The procedure precludes a balanced judgement between the interests of the consumers and the producers.

---

Ein Vergleich der internationalen und der englischen Richtlinien für das Marketing von Muttermilch-Ersatzprodukten

Zusammenfassung Im Jahre 1981 erließ die Weltgesundheitsorganisation internationale Richtlinien für das Marketing von Muttermilch-Ersatzprodukten. Zwei Jahre später unterstützte die britische Regierung die Einführung entsprechender nationaler Richtlinien für das eigene Land. Wie bei anderen britischen Marketing-Richtlinien wurden sie auch hier von den Herstellern selbst formuliert.Der Text der britischen Richtlinien weicht von den internationalen Richtlinien dahingehend ab, daß das derzeitige Marketing-Mix für Säuglingsnahrung in Großbritannien geschützt wird, nämlich Werbung im Gesundheitsdienst, Informationsmaterial für Mütter, Probepackungen für Mütter, Werbegeschenke an das Krankenhauspersonal, ein Direktberatungsdienst für Mütter sowie Verkaufsförderung in den Geschäften. Im Ergebnis werden damit die internationalen Richtlinien für Großbritannien außer Kraft gesetzt. Der Vergleich der beiden Richtlinien führt zu der Schlußfolgerung, daß die starke Beteiligung der Hersteller bei der Erarbeitung der Richtlinien, so wie sie in Großbritannien üblich ist, zu Richtlinien führt, die unter dem Gesichtspunkt des Verbraucherinteresses zu schwach sind. Das Verfahren erleichtert zwar die Einführung von Richtlinien, sichert aber zugleich den Status quo auf dem einzelnen Markt. Es verhindert dadurch einen angemessenen Ausgleich zwischen den Interessen der Nachfrager und Anbieter.

---

---

Robert Hamilton is a Lecturer in Marketing at the University of Lancaster, Gillow House, University of Lancaster, Bailrigg, Lancaster, UK, LA1 4YX, and Dale Whinnett a Research Assistant at the Trent Business School, Nottingham, UK, NG1 4B4.     

An Essay on When to Fully Disclose in Sales Relationships: Applying Two Practical Guidelines for Addressing Truth-Telling Problems

Salespeople have a moral obligation to prospect/customer, company and self. As such, they continually encounter truth-telling dilemmas. "lgnorance" and "conflict" often block the path to morally correct sales behaviors. Academics and practitioners agree that adoption of ethical codes is the most effective measure for encouraging ethical sales behaviors. Yet no ethical code has been offered which can be conveniently used to overcome the unique circumstances that contribute to the moral dilemmas often encountered in personal selling. An ethical code is developed that charts ethical paths across a variety of sales settings (addressing "ignorance") while illustrating why the cost associated with acting morally is generally reasonable (addressing "conflict"). The code applies the universal transactional notions of customer expectations and salesperson reputation to illustrate why and when salespeople are morally required to tell the truth. In doing so, the code tackles head-on the vexing question of how best to juggle mixed motives - involving self-interests, corporate-concerns, cus-tomer-needs and other influences such as the nature of the transaction. The issue of how mixed motives can be dealt with through moral means is one that ethicists have previously sidestepped (Stark, 1993).     

WHO WINS AND WHO LOSES FROM VOLUNTARY EXPORT RESTRAINTS?:The Case of Footwear

Voluntary export restraints have been a popular resort of industrialcountries faced with increasing competition from exports ofdeveloping countries. As a strategy for circumventing the rulesof the GATT (whose regulations preclude increases in tariffs),these nontariff barriers have been rather successful; whetherthey have been as successful in their aim of protecting andstimulating the industry concerned is another matter. This article looks at what happened when industrial countriesimposed—and then removed—voluntary export restraintson the footwear industry during the 1970s and 1980s. Why didprotectionism spread so fast and then dissipate almost as rapidly,and what effects did this coming and going have on the exportingcountries We suggest that industrial countries removed the restraintsbecause they found ?them either superfluous (the expected employmenteffect failed to materialize) or ineffective (the principalexporters maintained their market share during the height ofthe restrictions), or else because the industry was able toadjust by importing footwear at a profit. Predicting the effect of VERs, and determining how best to managethem, are critical questions for developing countries strugglingto improve their export performance in the 1990s. The resultsof detailed study of a representative industry, summarized here,may assist in the prediction and determination.      

Investing exhaustible resource rents and the path of consumption

Abstract.  We set out dollar‐valued net national product for an economy with a wasting essential stock (oil deposit). We take up 'maintaining capital intact' and locally unchanging consumption. The percentage change in 'net investment' or 'genuine savings,' relative to the market rate of interest, denotes whether current consumption is rising, constant, or declining. JEL classification: O13, Q28, F0