Attention has been drawn in N.F.S. reports to the considerable regional variation in the consumption of individual foods. In this paper, the relevant theory and methodology of food expenditure analysis is briefly surveyed and an attempt is made to point out some of the gaps in the currnt state of knowledge. Results of preliminary analysis of regional variations in expenditure on apples are reported and methodological and statistical problems discussed. Finally, suggestions are made as to how some of the problems may be over-come and the lines along which future studies may proceed. 相似文献
The empirical literature on savings in low-income countrieshas exploited some remarkable data sets to shed new light onsavings behaviour in the poor agricultural households that makeup the majority of the population in such countries. A numberof conclusions have emerged: (i) the degree of consumption smoothingover seasons within the year and across years, in response tovery large income fluctuations, is higher than was supposed;(ii) the lack of complete insurance and credit markets, however,is manifested in asset stocks and asset compositions among farmers,especially small farmers, that are inefficient; (iii) the combinationof low and volatile incomes is an important cause of inefficiencyand income inequality; (iv) the proximity of formal financialinstitutions increases financial savings and crowds out informalinsurance arrangements, thus, in principle, better facilitatingfinancial intermediation; and (iv) simple life-cycle modelsof savings do not appear to explain long-term savings in low-incomesettings. 相似文献
Objective: Two disease-modifying therapies are licensed in the EU for use in rapidly-evolving severe (RES) relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS), fingolimod and natalizumab. Here a discrete event simulation (DES) model to analyze the cost-effectiveness of natalizumab and fingolimod in the RES population, from the perspective of the National Health Service (NHS) in the UK, is reported.
Methods: A DES model was developed to track individual RES patients, based on Expanded Disability Status Scale scores. Individual patient characteristics were taken from the RES sub-groups of the pivotal trials for fingolimod. Utility data were in line with previous models. Published costs were inflated to NHS cost year 2015. Owing to the confidential patient access scheme (PAS) discount applied to fingolimod in the UK, a range of discount levels were applied to the fingolimod list price, to capture the likelihood of natalizumab being cost-effective in a real-world setting.
Results: At the lower National Institute of Health and Care Excellence (NICE) threshold of £20,000/quality-adjusted life year (QALY), fingolimod only required a discount greater than 0.8% of list price to be cost-effective. At the upper threshold of £30,000/QALY employed by the NICE, fingolimod was cost-effective if the confidential discount is greater than 2.5%. Sensitivity analyses conducted using fingolimod list-price showed the model to be most sensitive to changes in the cost of each drug, particularly fingolimod.
Conclusions: The DES model shows that only a modest discount to the UK fingolimod list-price is required to make fingolimod a more cost-effective option than natalizumab in RES RRMS. 相似文献
This study investigated the business ethics experiences of Australian managers in China, using qualitative methodology to identify themes. Thirty-one Australian managers who had spent on average 8.7 years working in business connected to China participated in in-depth interviews regarding their business ethics experiences in China. Commonly, managers identified issues relating to a broad spectrum which could be labelled "bribery and facilitation". Other repeated themes included requests for visa assistance, employee theft, nepotism and non-adherence to contractual obligations. This study has important implications for helping Australian managers improve the way they approach potential ethical situations in China. Four key coping strategies can be identified from the data: managers spoke of not compromising their own morals, of attempting to understand the motivation of Chinese colleagues, of talking to others and of adhering to company policy. These strategies suggest practical steps may be taken by organisations when training managers for business activities in China. In particular, structuring of mentoring relationships between experienced and less experienced practitioners may be of assistance. Cultural training for managers and clear company policy on contentious issues such as bribery may also be of benefit. The themes identified in the study also have implications for academics researching expatriate business peoples' experiences in China. 相似文献
We test the theory of the term structure of indexed bond pricesdue to Cox, Ingersoll, and Ross (CIR). The econometric methoduses Hansen.'s generalized method of moments and exploits theprobability distribution of the single-state variable in CIR.'smodel, thus avoiding the use of aggregate consumption data.It enables us to estimate a continuous-time model based on discretelysampled data. The tests indicate that CIR's model for indexbonds perform reasonably well when confronted with short-termTreasury-bill returns. The estimates indicate that term premiumsare positive and that yield curves can take several shapes.However, the fitted model does poorly in explaining the serialcorrelation in real Treasury-bill returns. 相似文献