Avoiding tragedies: a Flemish common and its commoners under the pressure of social and economic change during the eighteenth century1

Despite the wide application of the metaphor of ‘the tragedy of the commons’, there is little historical literature that points to the weaknesses of its historical basis. There is, however, sufficient qualitative and quantitative evidence to prove that commons were well regulated and organized in order to achieve a sustainable management, that also took into account the needs and wishes of its commoners. This case study of a common in Flanders looks at the evidence for this in the eighteenth century, examining bookkeeping and other archival sources. A model that incorporates the different functions of the commons (sustainability, efficiency, and utility) is explained and applied.     

Age and gender differences in risk-taking behaviour as an explanation for high incidence of motor vehicle crashes as a driver in young males

Risk-taking behaviour has been identified as a possible explanation for the high incidence of motor vehicle crashes involving young male drivers. This study examines the extent to which differences in risk-taking behaviour explain the differential crash rates by age and gender. A random sample of 689 adults aged 17-88 were selected from motor vehicle license holders within randomly selected geographical areas across Queensland. Participants completed a questionnaire covering their attitudes towards driving behaviour and general risk-taking behaviour, selected demographic characteristics and self-reported history of road crashes as a driver. Univariate analysis showed that males scored higher means than females in driver aggression and thrill seeking and in their general risk acceptance. Multivariate logistic regression analysis indicated that males were twice as likely (OR 2.46, CI 1.59-3.83) to have reported at least one crash as a driver compared to females and nearly three times as likely (OR 2.88, CI 1.84-4.49) to have reported two or more crashes. Drivers aged 17-29 were also twice as likely (OR 2.31, CI 1.10-4.19) to have reported at least one crash when compared to those aged over 50 years. When risk-taking behaviours were introduced into the logistic model the odds of males (OR 1.70, CI 1.29-3.30) or 17-29 year olds (OR 1.30, CI 0.93-3.91) being involved in at least one crash substantially reduced. An increased risk of a crash as a driver can, in part, be explained by the age and gender differential in risk-taking behaviour. The challenge for public health professionals is to determine suitable strategies to modify risk-taking behaviour in young or male drivers.     

PLURALISM IN ENVIRONMENTAL ECONOMICS: A SURVEY OF THE SUSTAINABLE ECONOMIC DEVELOMENT DEBATE

It is claimed that the concept of ‘sustainable economic development’ is central to the new ‘practical’ environmentalism of the 1980s. Intuitively, sustainability perspectives seem to suggest that knowledge accumulated in the natural sciences ought to be applied to economic processes. They contain the proposition that there is a real prospect that increasing per capita real incomes over time can be achieved in an environmentally benign manner, or at least without posing severe environmental risks. A working definition of sustainable development might be as follows: Sustainable development involves maximising the net benefits of economic development, subject to maintaining the services and quality of natural resources over time. Economic development is broadly construed to include not just increases in real per capita incomes but also other elements in social welfare. Development will necessarily involve structural change within the economy and in society. Maintaining the services and quality of the stock of resources over time implies, as far as practicable, acceptance of the following rules: utilise renewable resources at rates less than, or equal to, the natural or managed rate at which they can regenerate; optimise the efficiency with which non-renewable resources are used in the long run, subject to substitutability between resources, and technological progress.     

THE NATIONAL DEBT1

To finance its expenditure, the state can tax, borrow and print money. Each of these methods has a different effect on private spending, so the combination selected should depend on the pressure of demand upon resources. It should depend too on the pattern of private spending the state wants to encourage, and its division between consumption and investment.