Affective-symbolic and instrumental-independence psychological motives mediating effects of socio-demographic variables on daily car use

An empirical study investigates the extent to which affective-symbolic and instrumental-independence psychological motives mediate effects of socio-demographic variables on daily car use in Sweden. Questionnaire data from a mail survey to 1134 car users collected in 2007 were used to assess the relationships daily car use as driver or passenger have to sex, household type (single or cohabiting with or without children), and residential area (urban, semi-rural or rural). Reliable measures of affective-symbolic and instrumental-independence motives were constructed. The results show that households with children use the car more than households with no children, that men make more car trips as drivers than women who use the car as passenger more than men, and that households living in rural areas use the car more than households living in semi-rural areas who use the car more than households living in urban areas. An affective-symbolic motive partially mediates the relationship between the number of weekly car trips and sex, the instrumental-independence motive partially mediates the relationships between weekly car use and percent car use as driver and several of the socio-demographic variables (living in urban vs. rural residential area for both measures; sex and living in urban vs. semi-rural residential area for percent car use as driver). Of several other socio-demographic variables (age, employment, and income) affecting car use, only the relationship of the number of cars to percent car use as driver was (partially) mediated by the instrumental-independence motive.     

Cost-based transfer pricing

This paper compares the performance of alternative cost-based transfer pricing methods. We adopt an incomplete contracting framework with asymmetric information at the trading stage. Transfer pricing guides intra-company trade and provides incentives for value-enhancing specific investments. We compare actual-cost transfer prices that include a markup over marginal costs with standard-cost transfer prices that are determined either by the central office ex ante (centralized standard-cost transfer pricing) or by the supplying division at the trading stage (reported standard-cost transfer pricing). For the actual-cost methods, we show that markups based on the joint contribution margin (contribution-margin transfer pricing) dominate purely additive markups (cost-plus transfer pricing). We obtain the following results. (1) Centralized standard-cost transfer pricing dominates the other methods if the central office and the divisions ex ante face low cost uncertainty. (2) The actual-cost methods dominate the other methods if the central office and the divisions ex ante face high cost uncertainty and later, at the trading stage, the buying division receives sufficient cost information. (3) Reported standard-cost transfer pricing dominates the other methods if the central office and the divisions ex ante face high cost uncertainty, and the buyer has insufficient cost information at the trading stage.     

Co‐owned Local Government Organisations: Conditions for Strategy Development

Local governments tend to join resources and create co‐owned organisations to solve the supply of public services. From a strategic perspective on local government cooperation, this paper analyses the conditions for strategy development in a co‐owned municipal organisation. The empirical data stem from a longitudinal case study of a Swedish provider of water and sewerage services. We show that difficulties in formulating and agreeing upon strategies are not dependent on the structural form. Instead, there is an intrinsic dilemma when municipalities are to create a joint strategy at the same time as each municipality is sovereign to decide on all local matters.     

Solvency II – towards a new insurance supervisory system in the EU

This article describes the current state of affairs in the EU Solvency II project. The background and international context of the project is discussed, as well as the general outline of a future EU solvency system. In particular, several areas where further technical work is needed are outlined. These topics could provide interesting objects of study for professionals of actuarial sciences as well as to those of other related sciences.     

Services and consumer protection the proposed Swedish consumer services act

The Nordic countries are at present preparing a regulation of consumer services contracts. Proposals for comprehensive Consumer Services Acts have been submitted by Governmental Committees in Sweden and Norway. The author, himself Chairman of the Swedish committee, reports about the Swedish proposals which soon may become applicable law. They will cover most service contracts with the exception of insurance and professional services. The Act will be of a private law character and regulate the performance of and liability for the contract in a mandatory way. The consumer's position in service contracts will be improved in many respects, and these are outlined in some detail in the paper.

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Eine schwedische Gesetzesvorlage zur Verbesserung des Verbraucherschutzes bei Dienstleistungen

Zusammenfassung Die intensive verbraucherpolitische Gesetzgebung der Nordischen Staaten — Schweden, Dänemark, Norwegen, Finnland — war bislang auf Handelspraktiken, Verbraucherkredit, Haftungsfragen und Kaufrecht konzentriert. Dienstverträge waren bislang nur sehr lückenhaft geregelt, obwohl erhebliche Werte umgeschlagen werden.Inzwischen hat eine schwedische Regierungskommission, die vom Autor dieses Beitrages geleiter wurde, ebenso wie eine norwegische Kommission einen umfassenden Gesetzgebungsvorschlag für Konsumentendienstverträge vorgelegt. Die Kommission beschreitet dabei bewußt rechtspolitisches Neuland.Der Beitrag geht auf die wichtigsten Vorschläge der Kommission ein, die weitgehend schon öffentliche Zustimmung gefunden haben und vermutlich zu einer entsprechenden legislativen Initiative führen. Das Gesetz wird nicht alle Dienstleistungen erfassen, etwa nicht Versicherungen, die einer besonderen gesetzlichen Regelung unterliegen, und Arztverträge. Zentraler Regelungsgegenstand sind Werkverträge (Reparaturverträge) an beweglichen Sachen und Gebäuden.Folgende Einzelvorschläge der Kommission verdienen besondere Beachtung: Werbeaussagen des Unternehmers, etwa über die Qualität seiner Dienstleistungen, werden grundsätzlich Vertragsinhalt und lösen bei Täuschung entsprechende Vertragssanktionen aus. Der Verbraucher kann den Vertrag jederzeit widerrufen, wenn das Werk noch nicht fertiggestellt ist, muß aber die geleisteten Dienste vergüten. Ausführlich und zwingend werden die Verzugsfolgen und die Gewährleistungshaftung des Unternehmers geregelt. Die Gewährleistungshaftung setzt eine entsprechende Anzeige des Konsumenten voraus, die spätestens zwei Jahre nach Gefahrübergang, bei unerkennbaren Mängeln auch länger, erfolgen muß. Bei Mängeln hat der Konsument ein kostenloses Nachbesserungsrecht. Unter bestimmten Umständen — nämlich Vertragsbruch durch Verzug oder gravierende Mängel — hat der Kunde ein Kündigungsrecht. Bei weniger gravierenden Mängeln kann der Konsument Minderung verlangen, sofern der Unternehmer nicht den Mangel beseitigt.Das Recht des Konsumenten auf Schadenersatz wird erweitert und in seiner Durchsetzungsmöglichkeit durch Beweislastregeln erleichtert. Es tritt grundsätzlich neben die sonstigen Rechtsbehelfe auf Nachbesserung, Kündigung und Minderung. Die Vorschläge regeln auch die Schadensberechnung, wobei im Verzugsfall vernünftige Pauschalen vereinbart werden können. Die Regelungen sollen zugunsten des Kunden zwingend sein.Schließlich enthält der Entwurf noch Vorschläge über Rechtsfolgen bei Verzug des Konsumenten mit seiner Leistung. Hier wird ein gerechter Interessenausgleich zwischem dem Zahlungs- und dem Ersatzanspruch des Unternehmers einerseits und dem Schutzanliegen des Konsumenten, insbesondere gegenüber übermäßig belastenden Verzugsfolgen, andererseits versucht.

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Ulf Bernitz is Professor of Private Law, Institute for Intellectual Property and Market Law, University of Stockholm, Fack, S-106 91 Stockholm 50, Sweden. From July 1980 he holds a chair of Consumer and Market Law at the same University. Parts of this paper appear also in the English language summary of the Swedish Government Official Report listed under References.     

Regressor and random-effects dependencies in multilevel models

The objectives of this paper are (1) to review methods that can be used to test for different types of random effects and regressor dependencies, (2) to present results from Monte Carlo studies designed to investigate the performance of these methods, and (3) to discuss estimation methods that can be used when some but not all of the random effects and regressor independence assumptions, are violated. Because current methods are limited in various ways, we will also present a list of open problems and suggest solutions for some of them. As we will show, the issue of regressor random-effects independence has received some attention in the econometrics literature, but this important work has had little impact on current research practices in the social and behavioral sciences.     

Preferences of Scotch malt whisky consumers for changes in pesticide use and origin of barley

In a case study related to Scotch malt whisky production, this study analyses consumers’ perceptions and preferences regarding two aspects that have emerged in the debate on sustainable production and consumption, and on environmentally responsible food choice, namely (i) the use of pesticides in agriculture, and (ii) the provenance of food ingredients. We carried out a choice experiment to investigate preferences and estimate Willingness to Pay of Scotch malt whisky consumers for pesticide use restrictions and the potential impact on the production of one of its essential ingredients, barley. Using latent class models, we find that about half of the respondents are non-demanders with respect to both attributes, and only a third of the sample population are willing to pay for further pesticide restrictions. Demand for more environmentally responsible production of Scotch malt whisky is therefore limited, indicating that in the case of Scotch malt whisky, consumers are not likely to be key to driving sustainable production. With respect to barley provenance, being able to claim a 100% Scottish product could be a plausible commercial option for some producers to pursue in a competitive market. Methodologically, the scale-adjusted latent class model proved to be successful in uncovering preference heterogeneity and its sources, in including non-demanders in the analysis and in accounting for differences in scale amongst respondents.     

Asset Ownership and the Threat to Sell

In this paper the effects of selling assets are examined in a property rights model à la Grossmann, Hart and Moore. The possibility of selling an asset gives its owner a bargaining tool which can strengthen his bargaining power under certain circumstances. This offers a form of protection against opportunistic behavior in the hold-up problem, which has not yet been considered in the literature on property rights. With this model it is possible to give a rationale for unconditional joint ownership. Moreover, an explanation for privatization, outsourcing and the existence of passive outside owners can be derived within the model.