De skandinaviske Aktuarforeningers Virksomhed i 1925

Abstract

Statistical extreme value theory provides a flexible and theoretically well motivated approach to the study of large losses in insurance. We give a brief review of the modem version of this theory and a “step by step” example of how to use it in large claims insurance. The discussion is based on a detailed investigation of a wind storm insurance problem. New results include a simulation study of estimators in the peaks over thresholds method with Generalised Pareto excesses, a discussion of Pareto and lognormal modelling and of methods to detect trends. Further results concern the use of meteorological information in the wind storm insurance and, of course, the results of the study of the wind storm claims.     

Brand differentiation between identical products an analysis from a consumer law viewpoint

The article treats the situation in which one and the same firm within one country sells an identical product under different brand names. The major motive behind brand differentiation are presented, as well as the consumer difficulties. The position with regard to brand differentiation in the Paris Convention on Industrial Property and national trademark law is analyzed. The author finds that brand differentiation usually does not constitute a problem seen from the perspective of trademark law. The author then discusses brand differentiation as a problem of antitrust law and unfair marketing practices law. Here, Swedish law, especially the recent Alcro case on brand differentiation in the Swedish Market Court, is given major attention. The author finds a reasonable solution to be the demand ofinformation to consumers about the identity behind brand differentiation.

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Zusammenfassung Der Beitrag beschäftigt sich mit den verbraucherpolitischen und rechtlichen Problemen, die bei der Verwendung verschiedener Bezeichnungen durch denselben Hersteller für qualitätsgleiche Produkte auftauchen. Gründe und Gefahren dieser Art von Produktdifferenzierung werden herausgearbeitet. Aus verbraucherpolitischer Sicht werden Bedenken gegen Produktdifferenzierung insbesondere dann geäußert, wenn sie zur Preisüberhöhung eingesetzt wird.Aus rechtlicher Sicht hat die Produktdifferenzierung bislang wenig Beachtung gefunden. Die Pariser Verbandsübereinkunft über das gewerbliche Eigentum verbietet zwar die Verwendung täuschender Marken; auch dürfen sie nicht zum Zwecke unlauteren Wettbewerbs eingesetzt werden. Nach ganz überwiegender Meinung gehört hierzu die Produktdifferenzierung durch Verwendung unterschiedlicher Marken für gleiche Produkte jedoch nicht. Eine ähnliche Feststellung läßt sich für das Warenzeichenrecht machen. Das Warenzeichen erfüllt nur eine Herkunftsfunktion, nicht eine Qualitätsfunktion; der Verbraucher kann nicht darauf vertrauen, daß die mit einem Warenzeichen versehene Ware sich qualitätsmäßig von einer mit einem anderen Warenzeichen des gleichen Herstellers versehenen Ware unterscheide. Das Kartellrecht erfaßt die Produktdifferenzierung nur, wenn sie als Mittel der Wettbewerbsbeschränkung eingesetzt wird, etwa bei Marktaufspaltung innerhalb der EG oder beim selektiven Vertrieb. Die Lieferverweigerung einer berühmten Ware kann gegen das Kartellrecht verstoßen; dadurch wird mittelbar Versuchen einer Produktdifferenzierung durch unterschiedliche Belieferung der Vertriebswege ein Riegel vorgesetzt.Der Autor verknüpft das Problem dann mit dem schwedischen Marktpraktikengesetz. Dieses Gesetz sieht neben dem Verbot der Täuschung auch bestimmte Informationspflichten vor, die das herkömmliche Warenzeichenrecht überlagern. Im Alcro-Fall war der Schwedische Marktgerichtshof mit dem Problem der Produktdifferenzierung erstmals befaßt war aber in seiner Entscheidung gespalten. Die Entscheidung sowie die Gründe von Mehr- und Minderheit werden ausführlich erörtert. Außerdem wird auf einen neuen Fall hingewiesen, den Elektrolux-Fall. Der Autor sucht eine Lösung des Problems in der Statuierung vonInformationspflichten.

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This article is partially based on the article by Ulf Bernitz and Lars Pehrson (in Swedish): Problemet märkesdifferentiering (The problem of brand differentiation),NIR Nordiskt immateriellt rättsskydd, 1978, pp. 190–214 (with further references).     

Where Schumpeter was nearly right – the Swedish model and Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy<--RID="*"-->

In Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy Joseph A. Schumpeter concluded that socialism would eventually displace capitalism in Western democracies. This would come about as a result of the superior performance of capitalism. We extract six “stylized” propositions that are essential elements of Schumpeter's prediction about the fate of capitalism. These propositions are confronted with the development of the Swedish economy. The three main results of the analysis are: (1) The evolution of the Swedish economy closely followed Schumpeter's predictions until about 1980: Large firms became increasingly predominant in production and innovative activity, ownership of firms became more and more concentrated, individual entrepreneurship waned in importance, the general public grew increasingly hostile towards capitalism, and by the late 1970s explicit proposals for a gradual transfer of ownership of firms from private hands were launched. (2) Design of tax and industrial policies fueled a development of the economy along the lines predicted by Schumpeter. In general, the policies discouraged private wealth accumulation. In particular, the policies favored concentration of firms and concentration of private ownership. (3) The turning point away from the path to socialism coincides with real world developments that disclosed two major flaws in Schumpeter's analysis. First, the ever more obvious failure of socialism in Eastern Europe went against Schumpeter's assertion that socialism can work. Second, Schumpeter, who thought that modern technology would make the giant corporation increasingly predominant, did not foresee the revival of entrepreneurship that took place in the Western countries around 1980.     

Handel mit Emissionsrechten und Herkunftsnachweisen in Europa — Das „Klima- und Energiepaket“

We analyze two major components of the so-called EU climate and energy package which has been proposed by the European Commission in order to implement the ambitious climate policy goals until 2020. The focus is on the development of the European emissions trading scheme and on the proposed directive introducing a trading scheme for guarantees of origin in order to promote the use of renewable energy. We conclude that the emissions trading scheme is substantially improved, not only because of the introduction of auctioning as the main principle for allocation, but also with regard to the distribution of the emission budget to the energy intensive sectors participating in the trading scheme on the one hand and the sectors not regulated by the scheme on the other. With respect to the regulation aimed at promoting the use of renewables we argue that it is necessary to be explicit about the final goals of the regulation and that co-existing funding and support schemes for renewables on the EU and the member-state-level have to be designed with great caution in order to avoid excess costs.     

Payments for agrobiodiversity conservation services for sustained on-farm utilization of plant and animal genetic resources

This paper discusses the potential application of Payment for Ecosystem Services-like schemes to tackle market failures associated with the public good characteristics of agrobiodiversity conservation services. So called payments for agrobiodiversity conservation services (PACS) would increase the private benefits from utilizing local plant and animal genetic resources on-farm through voluntary reward mechanisms, so as to sustain their on-farm conservation. Theoretical and applied insights about PACS are discussed and attention drawn to some of the challenges to be overcome in implementing PACS. In particular, these relate to the identification of potential buyers, the complex institutional setting in which PACS might operate and the articulation of a meaningful conservation goal based on a safe minimum standard approach. The latter is urgently needed, so as to ensure that additional agrobiodiversity services are generated. Relative to a fixed pricing approach, PACS schemes that seek to overcome information asymmetries through the use of conservation auctions may be associated with significant efficiency gains. However, potential trade-offs between ecological effectiveness, economic efficiency, and social equity considerations need to be carefully evaluated.     

Drivers of Change: A Multiple-Case Study on the Process of Institutionalization of Corporate Responsibility Among Three Multinational Companies

In this multiple-case study, I analyze the perceived importance of seven categories of institutional entrepreneurs (DiMaggio, Institutional patterns and organizations, Ballinger, Cambridge, MA, 1988) for the corporate social responsibility discourse of three multinational companies. With this study, I aim to significantly advance the empirical analysis of the CSR discourse for a better understanding of facts and fiction in the process of institutionalization of CSR in MNCs. I conducted 42 semi-structured face-to-face and phone interviews in two rounds with 30 corporate managers from three multinational companies. The data has been analyzed using qualitative (multiple coding) and quantitative (ANOVA, χ² analysis) techniques. The findings indicate that one company is driven by civil society’s influence on consumer’s perception, the second company by direct attacks by civil society, agenda setting organizations and legislators, and the third by the pressure of large customers and legislators. The results suggest that the coping behaviors of MNCs at both extremes of the spectrum of perceived responsible behavior aim at (1) improving the business case for CSR and (2) increasing legitimacy in society, resulting in converging CSR perceptions, and fostering an institutionalization of CSR.     

Market orientation of retail brands in the grocery chain: the role of supplier relationships

The role of retail brands has grown gradually and today they are regarded as one of the key strategic factors in the positioning of retail firms. However, developing retail brands that are competitive in terms of price and quality as well as in offering unique and specific values to consumers requires long-term, mutually beneficial retailer–supplier relationships that involve information exchange and a combination of the parties' core competencies and resources. This study investigates inter-firm activities in developing market-oriented retail brands in the grocery chain in four European countries. The aim is to identify critical factors that influence the role of these activities. Factors related to the internal organization, the nature of the supplier relationships and the market structure are discussed.     

Efficiency losses from overlapping regulation of EU carbon emissions

In order to achieve their climate policy targets EU member states apply various regulatory instruments. We investigate the potential efficiency losses arising from the imposition of emission taxes on sectors that are covered by the EU Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS). Our analysis indicates the possibility of substantial excess cost through overlapping regulation. We show that unilateral emission taxes on sectors subject to the EU ETS are environmentally ineffective and increase overall compliance cost of the EU ETS.      

Mobilizing change through the management control of intangibles

This qualitative study explores the management control of intangibles in three Swedish companies. The present analysis is discussed in terms of four theoretical perspectives, namely, evolutionary, action, organizational learning and structuration theory. The results indicate that such enablers of performance as customer and employee perceptions of individuals and organizational and relational competence are the key attributes that firms address. Equally important, however, are different routines that facilitate learning and the transformation of knowledge into action. Routines additional to surveys include statistical analysis, benchmarking, dialogues, salary bonuses, and contracts.