The impact of trade restrictions on U.S. apparel consumers

The loss incurred by U.S. apparel consumers in 1980 due to higher prices from tariffs and quotas was estimated. The price impact of tariffs was based on the ad valorem tariff rate while the price impact of quotas was based on estimated price differences between domestic and imported apparel at the same U.S. distribution level.Consumer losses in 1980 ranged from $10 billion to $12 billion depending on the price elasticity of demand for apparel and whether consumers or distributors received the scarcity rent generated by quotas. The increase in consumer expenditures due to higher prices accounted for the greatest proportion of consumer losses and ranged from 23% to 25% of total consumer expenditures for apparel depending on the allocation of the scarcity rent.While a reduction in trade restrictions would benefit consumers, such a reduction would also impose losses on firms and workers in the domestic apparel industry. However, there are other strategies for meeting competition from imports that would benefit producers as well as consumers.

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Einfuhrbeschränkungen aus Konsumentensicht — das Beispiel des US-amerikanischen Kleidungsmarktes

Zusammenfassung Die hohen amerikanischen Bekleidungseinfuhren der letzten 25 Jahre sind eine Folge der hohen Arbeitsintensität der Bekleidungsproduktion, die Ländern mit niedrigem Lohnniveau einen komparativen Vorteil bietet. Schon seit längerem sollen Zölle und Einfuhrmengen-Beschränkungen die amerikanische Bekleidungsindustrie schützen.Der vorliegende Beitrag versucht, die Verluste zu schätzen, die bei amerikanischen Käufern von Bekleidung im Jahre 1980 durch diejenigen Preiserhöhungen entstanden sind, die auf Zölle und Mengenbeschränkungen zurückzuführen sind. Die Schätzung der Preiswirkungen der Zölle knüpft unmittelbar an deren Beträge an, während die Schätzung der Preiswirkung der Mengenbeschränkungen an Preisunterschiede zwischen vergleichbaren heimischen Bekleidungsgütern und importierten Bekleidungsgütern anknüpft.Die auf diese Weise geschätzten Verbraucherverluste für das Jahr 1980 liegen zwischen 10 und 12 Milliarden Dollar (je nach der Höhe der Preiselastizität der Bekleidungsgüter-Nachfrage). Preisbedingte Ausgabenerhöhungen machen den größten Teil der Verbraucherverluste aus (ca. 23 bis 25% der gesamten Verbrauchsausgaben für Bekleidung).Die Analyse ist auf preisbedingte Verbraucherverluste beschränkt. Mögliche Einschränkungen der Wahlmöglichkeit durch Einfuhrbeschränkungen werden nicht erfaßt. Beispielsweise können Einfuhrmengen-Beschränkungen das Qualitätsspektrum der importierten Güter beeinflussen und zu einer Substitution besserer und teurerer Güter durch schlechtere Güter führen. Die Vernachlässigung solcher Wirkungen bedeutet, daß die im vorliegenden Beitrag quantifizierten Verbraucherverluste durch Einfuhrbeschränkungen unterschätzt sein dürften.Einerseits würde die Aufhebung von Einfuhrbeschränkungen den Verbrauchern nützen, andererseits würde sie jedoch der amerikanischen Bekleidungsindustrie Schaden bringen und zu Unternehmensschließungen und zu Arbeitslosigkeit führen. Strategien, um dem ausländischen Wettbewerb wirkungsvoll zu begegnen, liegen im Bereich neuer Produktionstechnologien, verbessertem Einsatz des Marketinginstrumentariums und vor allem im Bereich der Produktqualität. Solche Strategien würden sowohl der Industrie als auch den Konsumenten nützen, sie werden jedoch so lange unterdrückt, wie Handelsbeschränkungen auf anderem Wege einen Schutz gegen die Importkonkurrenz bieten.Das Beispiel zeigt die Divergenz von Produzenten- und Konsumenteninteressen bei Fragen des internationalen Handels. Diese Divergenz sollte für die Verbraucheraufklärung Anstoß sein, Konsumenten und ihre Organisationen auf die Vorteile des freien Handels aufmerksam zu machen, so daß sie ihren politischen Willen ebenso wirkungsvoll vorbringen wie Produzenten oder Arbeitnehmer.This paper is Scientific Article Number A-3731, Contribution Number 6707 of the Maryland Agricultural Experiment Station.

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Rachel Dardis is a Professor, and Katherine Cooke a Graduate Student, at the Department of Textiles and Consumer Economics, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, U.S.A.     

Ethical dilemmas in performance appraisal

As the interest in ‘the quality of work life’ grows, it becomes increasingly apparent that certain practices within this arena require critical scrutiny. This paper is an examination of one such area, performance appraisal (PA). We examine some of the main conceptual issues in PA, and we sketch some key, practical dilemmas that may arise in the use of PA. We conclude that one can morally justify the use of PA under certain condition, and we suggest possible solutions to key ethical dilemmas that are faced by the manager and the employee.     

Inter-organizational Relations and Employment in a Multi-employer Environment

This study focuses on the employment dimensions of inter‐organizational relations, taking as an example a large regional airport. The dense and complex relationships that emerge in a multi‐agency setting are highlighted to illustrate the tensions and contradictions that characterize the management of workers in an environment where contracting and recontracting predominate. These findings suggest that there is a need, on the one hand, to include inter‐organizational relations in the study of the employment relationship and, on the other hand, to reinsert employment issues into the analysis of inter‐organizational contracting and partnerships.     

Business ethics at the crossroads

During the last decade, the intensity of interest in the subject of business ethics has surprised even the most ardent defenders of the movement. It is easy to become euphoric over such developments. Yet, we should not be lulled into believing that such growth has no limits. The fact is that the movement stands at a watershed where certain alternative courses of action are available. In this paper, I outline what some of those crossroads are and what the consequences will be if certain actions are or are not taken. The key to success is dependent upon a multidisciplinary approach that relies on dialogue and cooperation among colleagues in the academy and in business. This will ensure a true mix of theory and practice.     

Valuations of aircraft noise: experiments in stated preference

The aim of this paper is to report new evidence relating to residents’ valuations of aircraft noise in three countries with an emphasis on a comparison of the valuations obtained using two contrasting approaches. One might be regarded as a standard stated choice approach offering pairwise comparisons of two alternatives characterised by a limited number of attributes. The other choice format adopted is innovative in drawing inspiration from the priority evaluator approach to embed aircraft movements alongside a wide range of other local factors that impact on residents’ quality of life. The paper addresses the differences in the results of the two approaches and explores the possible explanations for these variations. Although not conclusive, there is a suspicion that strategic bias may have influenced the results and we urge further research regarding incentives to such bias.     

Danger signs of unethical behavior: How to determine if your firm is at ethical risk

This paper is designed to do three things. First, it discusses some of the key trends in business ethics in the academic and corporate communities. Initiatives like the Arthur Andersen Business Ethics Program are noted. Secondly, the paper examines certain basic misconceptions about the field and concludes that the adage that good ethics is good business is still true. Finally, the paper highlights fourteen business attitudes or practices that may put a firm at ethical risk. For example, the paper discusses the risk of using ethics as simply a public relations initiative.Man's life is not a state of unalloyed happiness. The earth is no paradise. Although this is not the fault of social institutions, people are wont to hold them responsible for it. The foundation of any and every civilization, including our own, is private ownership of the means of production. Whoever wishes to criticize modern civilization, therefore, begins with private property. It is blamed for everything that does not please the critic, especially those evils that have their origin in the fact that private property has been hampered and restrained in various respects so that its full social potentialities cannot be realized.¹ Ludwig von Mises Robert Allan Cooke is Director of the Institute for Business Ethics at DePaul University. He has served as a member of the executive board of the Corporate Responsibility Group of Chicago, the educational subcommittee of Chicago United, and as an academic advisor for the Heartland Institute. He serves as project liason on the advisory council of the Arthur Andersen Business Ethics Program. He is also a management consultant in corporate training who frequently lectures to business and civic groups. His most recent publication is: The Ethical Side of Takeovers and Mergers, with Earl Young, Essentials of Business Ethics (New American Library, 1990).     

Kickstarting growth in bus patronage: Targeting support at the margins

This paper presents an assessment of the performance of the Kickstart and Bus Route Development Grant schemes in England and Scotland which aimed to move marginal or new bus services towards commercial operation. Three key aspects are addressed, namely: the bidding and implementation process; performance against objectives and the future potential of the approach. The evidence suggests that this form of transformational support appears to offer a better return than subsidy that supports the status quo or indeed patronage based support.