FDI and Growth: What Causes What?

This paper examines the causal relationship between FDI and economic growth by using an innovative econometric methodology to study the direction of causality between the two variables. We apply our methodology, based on the Toda‐Yamamoto test for causality, to time‐series data covering the period 1969–2000 for three developing countries, namely Chile, Malaysia and Thailand, all of them major recipients of FDI with a different history of macroeconomic episodes, policy regimes and growth patterns. Our empirical findings clearly suggest that it is GDP that causes FDI in the case of Chile and not vice versa, while for both Malaysia and Thailand, there is a strong evidence of a bi‐directional causality between the two variables. The robustness of the above findings is confirmed by the use of a bootstrap test employed to test the validity of our results.     

Stock options as a means of adding value in business markets: A powerful potential communication vehicle for business marketing managers

In this paper, the authors argue that stock options are a highly effective marketing communications (marcoms) medium, which due to their influence on the profitability of the organisation, possess characteristics that should be included in strategic marketing planning for financial and non-financial organisations. This study aims to test whether stock options can be used as a means for marketing strategists to build effective branding and loyalty programmes.It is argued that the strategic role of stock options in marketing decision making adds value in business markets. Stock options play a unique role in marketing and in the achievement of corporate goals and targets. The study is supported by the findings of a questionnaire survey based on a sample of Greek companies, grouped into two categories. The first category consists of the most profitable organisations supplying business markets, listed on the Athens Stock Exchange (ASE) and the second consists of large financial organisations.     

DEFAULT RISK PREMIA IN THE NEAR-CASH INVESTMENT MARKET: THE CASE OF AUCTION RATE PREFERRED STOCK VERSUS COMMERCIAL PAPER

Auction rate preferred stock (ARPS) is often regarded as an alternative to other near-cash instruments such as commercial paper while the dividend exclusion for ARPS offers tax advantages to corporate purchasers. The mean default risk premium for ARPS, relative to commercial paper, is estimated at 83 basis points during stable financial markets. This default premium appears to surge during unstable equity markets, having jumped by 192 basis points in November 1987. Lower-rated ARPS shows even larger changes, with yields 40–50 basis points above yields on high-rated ARPS, adjusted for the normal risk premium differential. The perceived risk change of ARPS underscores how quickly market participants re-evaluate default risk, and even the importance of the priority order among debt and equity claimants. Findings suggest ARPS and commercial paper are not an acceptable substitute for commercial paper during times of unsettled equity markets.     

Trade Reform in Indonesia, 1987–95

This paper quantifies Indonesian trade liberalisation between 1987 and 1995 as measured by changes in real effective rates of protection (RERP), i e effective rates of protection corrected for trade policy-induced changes in wages. The RERP for manufacturing, including oil refining, fell from 27% in 1987 to 11% in 1995, for manufacturing, excluding oil refining, the fall was from 59% to 16%, and for agriculture from 9% to 4% The standard deviation of RERPs for all tradeable sectors fell from 42 percentage points to 26; and for manufacturing, excluding oil refining, from 102 percentage points to 39.     

Capital costs and profitability

The paper estimates a line-of-business (LB) cost-of-capital and derives explicitly its link — in long-run competitive equilibrium — to profitability measured as LB operating income to LB assets. The ways that observed profitability differs from what would obtain in competitive equilibrium are explored.     

The uses of history in policy analysis and strategic planning

History is a useful, if not necessary, adjunct to the policy analysis process. Although the policy options are different at various periods in history, we can learn from the examples of the past. The Japanese experience or coordination between government and the universities is examined along with the American experience since World War II.     

Reforming the par-value system

Zusammenfassung Zur Reform des Wechselkurs-Systems. — Der Aufsatz untersucht die Einstellung der Exekutiv-Direktoren des Internationalen W?hrungsfonds zum Wechselkurs-System. Die Direktoren sind der Ansicht, da\ man die W?hrungsparit?ten als ?feste Bezugspunkte? verstehen sollte, die eine heilsame Disziplin für die Aufrechterhaltung der finanziellen Stabilit?t im Inland schaffen. Sie geben zwar zu, da\ ?ungebührlich verz?gerte? Parit?ts?nderungen gef?hrlich sein k?nnen, fürchten aber ?verfrühte? ?nderungen weit mehr, weil diese die monet?re Disziplin schw?chen k?nnten (w?hrend die Disziplin gerade durch das Trauma verz?gerter ?nderungen und W?hrungskrisen angeblich gest?rkt werden würde). Auch fürchten sie bei einem System flexibler Wechselkurse konkurrierende Abwertungen, w?hrend ihnen über- oder Unterbewertungen viel weniger Sorgen machen. Folglich lehnen die Exekutiv-Direktoren das Floating der Wechselkurse, erweiterte Bandbreiten und eine automatische Formel-Flexibilit?t ab. In diesem Aufsatz wird die Ansicht vertreten, da\ diese offizielle Haltung des Fonds zu starr ist und da\ eine gr?\ere Flexibilit?t der Wechselkurse (in der Form eines gleitenden Bandes) in das System eingebaut werden sollte, besonders auch im Hinblick auf die zunehmende Rolle der Sonderziehungsrechte. Die aus einer bedingungslosen Zuwendung von Reserven erwachsende Zunahme der Unabh?ngigkeit der nationalen Wirtschaftspolitik erfordert einen Anpassungsmechanismus, der h?ufige und kleine ?nderungen der Parit?ten vorsieht.

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Résumé Une réforme du système des parités monétaires. — Cet article discute l’attitude des directeurs exécutifs du Fonds Monétaire International en ce qui concerne le système des parités monétaires. Les directeurs sont d’avis qu’il faut comprendre les parités comme des ?points de repère fixes?, qui fournissent une discipline utile pour le maintien d’une stabilité financière à l’intérieur d’un pays. Tout en admettant que des modifications de parité ?ind?ment retardées? peuvent être dangereuses, les directeurs craignent bien plus les modifications ?prématurées?, qui risquent d’affaiblir la discipline monétaire (tandis que celle-ci est jugée être renforcée par la crainte traumatique même des modifications retardées et des crises monétaires). En outre, les directeurs craignent une concurrence de dépréciation des cours des changes sous un régime de taux flexibles, tandis qu’ils se préoccupent bien moins des surou sousévaluations. Par conséquent, ils rejettent le floating des cours des changes, les grandes marges, et l’ajustement automatique des parités au moyen de formules. Cet article explique que l’attitude officielle du Fonds est trop rigide et qu’il faudrait incorporer au système une plus grande flexibilité des cours des changes (en forme d’un glissement), surtout en vue du rêle toujours augmentant des droits spéciaux de tirage. L’indépendance accrue des politiques économiques nationales, qui résulte de l’allocation sans conditions de réserves, demande un mécanisme d’ajustement basé sur de petites et fréquentes modifications des parités.

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Resumen La reforma del sistema de paridad cambiaria. — En el artículo se discute la actidud de los directores ejecutivos del Fondo Monetario International con respecto al sistema de paridad cambiaria. Los directores ejecutivos sugieren que se utilicen las paridades como puntos fijos de referencia, de manera que se disponga de una marco de orientación para mantener la estabilidad financiera interior. No cabe duda de que demoras excesivas en los reajustes cambiarios pueden ser peligrosos, pero los directores temen mucho más reajustes prematuros, los cuales debilitarían la disciplina monetaria. Además, temen que surj an devaluaciones competitivas bajo un régimen de tipos de cambio flexibles, mientras que se ocupan mucho menos del problema de sobre y subvaluaciones. En consecuencia, los directores ejecutivos rechazan tipos de cambio flotantes, márgenes de variación cambiaria amplios y reajustes automáticos de la paridad de acuerdo con una fórmula determinada. El autor mantiene que esta actidud oficial del Fonto es demasiado rígida y que se debería introducir en el sistema una mayor flexibilidad de los tipos de cambio (en forma de una ?banda? móvil), particularmente en vista de la importancia creciente de los derechos especiales de giro. La mayor independencia de las políticas económicas nacionales, que resulta de asignaciones incondicionadas de réservas, requière un mecanismo de ajuste que se basa en variaciones frequentes y peque?as de la paridad.

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Riassunto Il riordinamento del sistema delle parità monetarie. — L’articolo esamina la posizione dei direttori gerenti del Fondo monetario internazionale riguardo al sistema delle parità monetarie. I direttori sono d’avviso che le parità monetarie si dovrebbero intendere come ?punti fissi di riferimento? che creino una salutare disciplina in relazione al mantenimento di una stabilità finanziaria all’interno. Essi ammettono invero che modifiche ?eccessivamente ritardate? delle parità possono essere pericolose, temono, peró, molto di più, modifiche ?premature? che indebolirebbero la disciplina monetaria (la quale sarebbe rafforzata presumibilmente già dal trauma di ritardate modifiche e crisi monetarie). Essi temono anche, in un sistema di parità flessibili, concorrenti svalutazioni dei cambi, mentre molto meno preoccupazioni danno loro soprao sottovalutazioni. Di conseguenza i direttori gerenti rigettano una fluttuazione dei cambi, larghi margini e adattamento automatico delle parità per mezzo di formule. L’articolo sostiene l’opinione che questo atteggiamento ufficiale del Fondo è troppo rigido e ehe una maggiore flessibilità dei cambi (nella forma di una fascia mobile) deve essere incorporata nel sistema, soprattutto anche in considerazione del ruolo crescente dei diritti speciali di prelievo. L’incremento dell’indipendenza di politiche economiche nazionali che deriva dall’incondizionata destinazione di riserve esige un meccanismo di adattamento che lavori con frequenti e piccole modificazioni delle parità.