The Social Norms of Discrete Consumer Exchange

Abstract Social norms have been recognized as an important influence in long-term relational exchange between firms. It is here argued that social norms are equally important in short-term discrete exchange that takes place between firms and consumers. The norms of consumer exchange are, however, of a different kind. To clarify the difference, a classification system is presented. Based on the classification, the social norms of discrete consumer exchange are defined and a method of quantifying these norms is proposed. This method should help in the ongoing effort to understand how the social macro-environment influences individual behavior in dyadic exchange. Gundlach, Achrol, and Mentzer (1995)) note a recent shift in the marketing research paradigm toward a concern for the social determinants of economic exchange behavior. As they point out, this shift requires the analysis of often ambiguous concepts. One of these concepts is that of the social norm. Marketing researchers have recognized that social norms are a valuable explanatory variable. Their influence has been depicted in marketing models (e.g., Bagozzi 1978: Kalapurakal. Urbany, and Dickson 1992), tested in relational exchanges (e.g., Dant and Schul 1992; Heide and John 1992; Kaufmann and Stern 1988), and cited in the marketing orientation literature (e.g. Hurley and Hull 1998: Slater and Narver 1995). The focus here is on the social norms of economic exchange, a subset of the social norms of a given society. In economic exchange, the investigation of social norms has considered primarily the norms of long-term, relational transactions common in inter-firm exchange. Little-research has considered the social norms of the more short-term, discrete transactions common in exchanges between businesses and consumers. However, Kaufmann and Stern (1988: 535) suggest that norms “exist in all exchange behavior, from very discrete transactions to highly relational exchange.” The identification of the social norms of discrete consumer exchange is important to the understanding of the social structure of markets. On a practical level, it also helps marketers minimize consumer hostility. For example, consumers were outraged when Merck distributed its AIDS drug through a channel that charged a 37% markup (Wall Street Journal,May 7, 1996: B1). Merck did not consider the social norms that evidently sanction a 300% markup by consulting firms but not a 37% markup by distributors of pharmaceuticals. To avoid such blundering infractions of social norms. it behooves sellers to understand the social norms of discrete consumer exchange.     

Evaluative and factual ad claims,knowledge level,and making inferences

A lab study examined the effect of type of ad claim (factual versus evaluative) and knowledge level on subjects' product feature inference making from three camera ads. Each ad had some missing brand information. The results showed that as knowledge increased, so did inference making. Also, there was a significant interaction between ad claim and knowledge. Inference making was positively correlated with knowledge level for factual ads but not for evaluative ones. Finally, subjects made very few inferences to fill in missing ad features but instead did more interpretive processing.     

Learning tomanage innovation

Technological innovation is widely accepted to be a complex learning proces through which firms try to acquire and develop distinctive technological competence. But there is a second dimension to such learning which relates to the ways in which the innovation process is managed, which also involves a developmental, cumulative progress. No all firms have the same level of skill in managing projects, in understanding user needs, in search behaviour, in managing inter-fin relationship, etc.; these are all abilities which are learned over time. This paper reviews the concept of capability development as it applies to the management of technological innovation. It illustrates this with the example of continuous improvement (CI)—a key capability which is associated with high levels of involvement in the innovation process through the contribution of regular incremental improvement ideas from a large proportion of th workforce. CI is a simple concept bus is proving very difficult to implement successful in practice; arguably, this is because it involves extensive learning and adaptation. In exploring this issue the paper draws upon the results of a 5-year empirical study into the adoption and implementation of CI within European enterprises. The paper concludes with some comments on the process of 'learning to learn' and argues that managing this process is a key component of strategic technology management.     

非上市公司自愿采用国际会计准则的利弊

根据欧洲法律,欧洲的上市公司从2005年起在编制合并报表时必须采用国际会计准则(IAS)。然而,英国贸工部已经宣布上市公司在编制个别会计报表时也可以采用IAS。另外,从2005年1月起,英国的其他公司和有限责任合伙企业也可以采用IAS编制其个别及合并报表。那些不需要采用IAS的公司也可能选择采用IAS,其原因有很多。例如,一家拥有大量子公司的上市集团公司,如果其所有成员公司采用同样的公认会计原则(GAAP),则可以从内部报告效率的提高中受益。普华永道会计公司全球公司报告部负责人伊恩·莱特也注意到对大型私营公司的益处。他说,“在…     

French versus American consumers’ attachment of value to a product in a common consumption context: A cross-national comparison

This article investigates the influence of French and American national culture on consumer perceptions of productrelated value. Employing means-end theory, hypotheses are developed to predict how French versus American national culture influences the content and structure of consumer value hierachies. Hypotheses are tested using data from in-depth laddering interviews with a matched sample of French and American consumers. The findings support the contention that differences exist in the meaning and relative importance of consumer value hierarchy dimensions across the two national cultures. Furthermore, the analysis suggests that consumption consequences are especially culturally sensitive. Jeffrey W. Overby (joverby@cob.fsu.edu) is an assistant professor of marketing and international business in the Department of Marketing at Florida State University. He holds a doctorate from the University of Tennessee, Knoxville. His research interests focus on customer value determination, service quality, and cross-cultural marketing issues. His work has appeared inInternational Marketing Review and numerous domestic and international conferences, includingProceeding of the 2001 Academy of Marketing Science Annual Conference andProceeding of the Tenth Biennial World Marketing Conference. Sarah Fisher Gardial (sgardial@utk.edu) is an associate professor and associate dean for academic programs in the College of Business Administration at the University of Tennessee. She holds a doctorate from the University of Houston. Her research interests focus on customer value and satisfaction, consumer decision making and information processing, and buyer/seller dyadic relations. Her work has appeared in numerous journals, including theJournal of Consumer Research, theJournal of Advertising, Industrial Marketing Management, and theJournal of Macromarketing. Robert B.Woodruff (rwoodruff@utk.edu) is the Proffitt’s, Inc. Professor of Marketing and head of the Department of Marketing and Logistics at the University of Tennessee. His primary interests are in customer value theory, customer satisfaction theory, and market opportunity analyses, all with applications to customer-value-based marketing strategies. His work has appeared in theJournal of Marketing, theJournal of Marketing Research, theJournal of the Academy of Marketing Science, theJournal of Consumer Research, and theJournal of Satisfaction, Dissatisfaction & Complaining Behavior. He has received two outstanding reviewer awards from theJournal of the Academy of Marketing Science.     

Reasons for not volunteering: overcoming boundaries to attract volunteers

ABSTRACT

Research on volunteering has mainly focused on the explanatory demographics and functional motives to volunteer, but little is known about the reasons that people might have not to volunteer. However, these reasons need more academic attention, as they form the barriers that organizations have to overcome when attracting new volunteers. We examine a sample of 1248 respondents on whether they volunteer, are interested in volunteering, or have no interest to volunteer. We verify whether demographic differences exist between these groups. By means of an exploratory factor analysis, we analyze the reasons not to volunteer for those who have no interest to volunteer. This complements earlier research by focusing on the barriers that people might have, instead of the benefits of volunteering that have extensively been documented.     

Dropouts,Defaulters, and Continuing Borrowers: Client Exit from Microfinance

High dropout rates are a problem faced by many microfinance institutions, with borrowers exiting after a few loans. The curiosity of dropouts is that, unlike defaulters, they repay their loans. To understand this I investigate differences across borrowers using data from Zimbabwe. I find that negative shocks are a significant predictor of dropout, but not of default, and that social networks are the most important correlate of on‐time repayment. The results show the importance of social networks in determining credit relationships.