Equity-Indexed Life Insurance: Pricing and Reserving Using the Principle of Equivalent Utility

Abstract

The author applies the principle of equivalent utility to price and reserve equity-indexed life insurance. Young and Zariphopoulou (2002a, b) extended this principle to price insurance products in a dynamic framework. However, in those papers, the insurance risks were independent of the risky asset in the financial market. By contrast, the death benefit for equity-indexed life insurance is a function of a risky asset; therefore, this paper further extends the principle of equivalent utility. In a second extension, the author applies the principle of equivalent utility to calculate reserves, as introduced by Gerber (1976). In a related paper, Moore and Young (2002) price equity-indexed pure endowments, the building blocks of equity-indexed life annuities.     

Optimal hedge ratios and alternative hedging strategies in the presence of cointegrated time-varying risks

This paper utilizes the inter-temporal relationship between the FTSE-100 stock index and its futures price level between 1992 and 1999 to examine the characteristics of several minimum variance hedge ratios and the performances of several alternative hedging strategies for dynamic portfolio management in the presence of cointegrated time-varying risks. Earlier studies neglected the importance of cointegration between the two variables which resulted in biased estimates. These studies, in general, also assume that the hedging period is the same as the estimation time interval. This paper also looks at several key issues when the holding period is longer than the estimation period, such as the construction of optimal minimum variance hedge ratios, and the trade-off between transaction costs and risk reduction.     

Proving regularity of the minimal probability of ruin via a game of stopping and control

We reveal an interesting convex duality relationship between two problems: (a) minimizing the probability of lifetime ruin when the rate of consumption is stochastic and the individual can invest in a Black–Scholes financial market; (b) a controller-and-stopper problem, in which the controller controls the drift and volatility of a process in order to maximize a running reward based on that process, and the stopper chooses the time to stop the running reward and pays the controller a final amount at that time. Our primary goal is to show that the minimal probability of ruin, whose stochastic representation does not have a classical form as does the utility maximization problem (i.e., the objective’s dependence on the initial values of the state variables is implicit), is the unique classical solution of its Hamilton–Jacobi–Bellman (HJB) equation, which is a non-linear boundary-value problem. We establish our goal by exploiting the convex duality relationship between (a) and (b).     

Comparing U.S. and Japanese corporate-level operating performance using financial statement data

This study uses financial statement data restated to a similar reporting basis to compare the operating performance of U.S. and Japanese companies, identifying possible strategic and environmental explanations for the differences observed. Comparisons are made for U.S. and Japanese samples as a whole, for groups of Japanese firms (keiretsu v. nonkeiretsu), and for 11 industries. The results show that neither country appears to generate systematically higher profit margins, but that U.S. firms turnover assets other than inventory more quickly and therefore have higher rates of return on assets. More intensive examination of these results suggests that environmental factors, such as cultural or structural differences, are the primary causes of the observed differences in the data analyzed.     

Internationalization of Australian business in the Asia-Pacific region: Issues and prospects

The phenomenal economic growth of the Asia-Pacific region initially was driven by export-oriented industrialization and more recently by intraregional trade. This provided the backdrop for the present study that examined the pattern, motivations, strategies, problems, issues, and prospects of Australian businesses and direct investments in this region. The study concluded that although an extensive trade relationship has been fostered between Australia and the Asia-Pacific, this has not been translated into direct investments. Key impediments seem to be attitudinal, because of cultural and language differences, and the lack of international competitiveness. These problems are only beginning to be recognized. An agenda for action is suggested at the Government, industry, and company levels. © 1995 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Auto pollution and congestion in an urban model: An analysis of alternative strategies

Congestion and pollution externalities associated with automobile driving are examined for their effect on urban structure. A monocentric urban model which incorporates household preferences for both an unpolluted environment and for leisure time is presented, and used to evaluate alternative pricing and emissions policies on automobile use and their effects on city structure. Optimal tax gradients for driving are derived, and compared with second best cases of per mile taxes and no taxes. As externalities gradients become more nonlinear, the welfare gains from employing optimal taxes rather than a per mile tax are increased. The appropriate choices of an emission standard, highway capacity, and highway pricing policy must be made simultaneously and depend on household preferences.     

Productivity,mechanization and skills: A test of the Hirschman hypothesis for Latin American industry

This paper attempts to test the paradoxical Hirschman hypothesis relating to the suitability of certain capital-intensive industries for less industrialized countries based on the ‘process-centred’ or ‘machine-paced’ nature of those industries which makes their productivity less dependent on the quality of local labour. Following extensive discussion of the methodology (e.g. problems of selection and specification of the variables explaining productivity differentials, and problems in specifying the appropriate variables to be explained), the author presents and analyses results for seven Latin American countries. These countries were chosen because of their more highly developed industrial structure, i.e. higher industrial value added per capita and a more diversified product mix, in order to provide a more severe test of the hypothesis. Although the results are not definitive, they seem to indicate that the industries which did better in relative productivity terms were those based on abundant local resources or of a traditional character on the whole; rather a reaffirmation of comparative advantage with little paradox.     

Consumer reactions to technology in general and to a specific technological innovation: Supermarket checkout scanners

Intellectuals have been concerned with technology's impact on society. Many, if not most, viewed the results of technology as being more negative than positive. It has been supposed that consumers also held these negative views. Research in one major United States city indicates that this may not be the case. Generally consumers gave positive evaluations of technological change. However this did not mean they evaluated one result of technological change, checkout scanners, positively. Views of technology were related to demographic characteristics. Generally the older, non-employed, poorer respondent had a more negative view.

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Verbraucher-Reaktionen auf generelle und spezifische technologische Entwicklungen: das Beispiel Checkout Scanner (automatische Lesegeräte) in Supermärkten

Zusammenfassung Zahlreiche Veröffentlichungen befassen sich skeptisch mit der Geschwindigkeit und den Ergebnissen des technischen Fortschritts. Einige Autoren nehmen an, daß es auch bei Konsumenten Vorbehalte gegenüber technologischen Veränderungen gibt, und vermuten, daß diese Vorbehalte Auswirkungen auf das Anbieterverhalten haben, wenn es um die Einführung von für den Kunden sichtbaren neuen Technologien geht. Ein Beispiel für solche Technologien sind automatische Code-Leser an Supermarkt-Kassen.Der Lebensmittelhandel hat lange gezögert, solche automatischen Lesegeräte einzuführen; er befürchtete negative Reaktionen der Kunden auf diese Geräte und auf die damit verbundene Aufhebung der Preisauszeichnung am einzelnen Produkt. Diese Geräte können die computergespeicherten Produktpreise abrufen, sodaß der Handel keine Preisauszeichnung mehr an der Ware vornehmen muß. Einige Untersuchungen zeigten, daß Konsumenten mit dem Wegfall der Preisauszeichnung nicht einverstanden waren, und vermuteten als Ursache eine allgemeine Abwehrhaltung der Konsumenten gegenüber Technologie. Der vorliegende Beitrag berichtet über eine im Jahre 1982 in Milwaukee, USA, durchgeführte Untersuchung zur Überprüfung dieser Vermutung.Die Ergebnisse dieser Untersuchung deuten insgesamt daraufhin, daß die meisten Befragten dem technologischen Fortschritt positiv gegenüberstehen. Die überwiegende Meinung ist, daß Technologie das tägliche Leben beeinflußt, aber auch, daß das Tempo der technologischen Entwicklung angemessen ist und ihre Ergebnisse nützlich sind. Was speziell die Checkout Scanner betrifft, so gibt es nur sehr wenige Befragte, die sie grundsätzlich für eine schlechte Einrichtung halten. Anders sieht es aus, wenn nach dem Wegfall der Preisauszeichnung gefragt wird. Die überwiegende Mehrheit spricht sich gegen diesen Wegfall aus, zugleich sind aber nur sehr wenige Befragte der Meinung, daß die Preisauszeichnung an der Ware gesetzlich vorgeschrieben werden sollte. Die Einstellung zur Technologie hängt von demografischen Eigenschaften ab. Negative Einstellungen finden sich vor allem bei älteren, arbeitslosen und einkommensschwachen Befragten.Die Studie zeigt also, daß Konsumenten die technologische Entwicklung insgesamt auch dann positiv einschätzen, wenn sie mit einzelnen Ergebnissen dieser Entwicklung unzufrieden sind. Unzufriedenheit mit einzelnen Ergebnissen führt nicht notwendigerweise zu der Meinung, der Status quo müsse mit gesetzlichen Mitteln erhalten bleiben.

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Frederick W. Langrehr is a Visiting Associate Professor, Institute of Business Management, and Virginia B. Langrehr is an Associate Professor, School of Family, Home and Social Sciences, both at Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah 84602, USA.     

Evaluating the Ethics of Inversion

In the last five years, a number of U.S. companies have either moved their locus of incorporation to countries with more favorable tax laws, or announced such moves. Given this trend toward “inversions”, and the polemics that have accompanied it, we offer two ways in which the ethics of such a move can be evaluated. We provide multinational executives with two applications of ethics to inversion: Kant’s deontological theory and the consequentialist perspective of utilitarianism.     

End-of-life care in nursing homes: the high cost of staff turnover

Nursing home staff turnover results in high cost--both economic and personal--and has a negative impact on the quality of care provided to residents at the end of life. Reducing staff turnover in nursing homes would benefit both the cost to the U.S. health care system, and, most importantly, the care residents receive in the vulnerable period leading to death. There is rising pressure on nursing homes to improve their palliative and end-of-life care practices and reduce transfers to hospital for situations and conditions that can be safely managed on site. Nursing care staff deserve an investment in the specific training necessary for them to give the highest quality care to dying residents. This training should be multifaceted and include the physiological, psychological, spiritual, interpersonal, and cultural (including ethnic) aspects of dying. Empowerment with these necessary knowledge, skills, and attitudes will not only result in better care for residents but likely also will reduce the burnout and frustration staff experience in caring for residents near death.