The rise of professional unions in Germany. Challenge and threat for established industrial relations?

The author analyses the rise of professional unions, one of the most remarkable developments in German labour movement since the early 2000s. By means of strikes, they managed to get officially accepted as autonomous partners for collective bargaining. The author asks whether their emergence challenges or even threats the established systems of industrial relations.     

Hostile Territory: High-Tension Religion and the Jewish Peddler

A bstract .   Scholars have long explored the role that reputation plays in the facilitation of exchange. Some attention has also been paid to the way in which religions serve as a proxy for reputation or as a mechanism for enforcement of exchange agreements. These reputation and enforcement mechanisms enhance the ability of the members of certain religious groups to perform economic roles where such secular-based mechanisms fail or are absent. In this article, I explore the ways in which hostility toward members of high-tension religions makes them uniquely well suited to the economic role of middlemen. As illustration, I explore the particular case of the 19^th-century German Jewish peddler in the young United States.     

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Ohne Zusammenfassung     

Energy use,technical progress and productivity growth: A survey of economic issues

In this paper I survey and interpret several of the most important aspects underlying relationships among technical progress, productivity growth, and energy use, viewed from the vantage of an economist. The first portion of the paper provides a noneconomist with a nontechnical summary of the economic theory of cost and production, and defines single-factor and multi-factor productivity growth. In the second half of the paper, four examples are presented that highlight the special role of energy consumption in inducing and reflecting the effects of technical progress and productivity growth. A common theme in the four examples is that the concepts of embodiment, diffusion and learning are critical to understanding the forces linking energy usage, technical progress and productivity growth.The refereeing process of this paper was handled through T.G. Cowing.     

Mögliche Auswirkungen von Senkungen der Kaffeesteuer auf den Kaffeeverbrauch in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland

Summary Possible Consequences for Coffee Consumption in the German Federal Republic of a Lowering of Coffee Duties.— The extremely high German coffee duties, amounting today to almost a hundred per cent of average import value of raw coffee, have given rise to the question whether a lowering, or even the complete abolition, of coffee duties would bring about an appreciable increase of coffee consumption and, consequently, coffee imports into the German Federal Republic. So the present paper, which brings up to date a study of 1963 under the same heading, presents an econometrical analysis (based on the period from 1950 to 1968), by means of the reaction relations resulting from which it is attempted, on the one hand, to ascertain the price elasticity of coffee demand, and on the other, to estimate the consequences of a lowering, or total abolition, of coffee duties. On the whole, the results of the present study confirm those found in 1963: Given the present behaviour of consumers, coffee demand in the German Federal Republic must be regarded as price inelastic (i.e., η_p≪ |o.5|). Consequently, price lowering would spell profit lowering in the coffee trade. Any lowerings of coffee duties would, therefore, always be passed on directly and not be absorbed by the trade margin. And a total abolition, for instance, of coffee duties in the German Federal Republic in 1968 would have lowered coffee retail prices by only 29.9 per cent, while increasing coffee consumption by only 9.2 per cent. Which would mean that a loss of 1,044 million DM (coffee duty proceeds in 1968) on the one hand, would have been offset by an import increase of only 99 million DM on the other.

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Résumé Conséquences possibles d’une baisse des droits sur le café pour la consommation de café dans la République Fédérale Allemande. — On s’est demandé à cause du montant très haut des droits sur le café, qui s’élèvent en ce moment au presque cent pour cent de la valeur moyenne du café à l’importation, si une baisse, ou peut-être même une abolition totale des droits sur le café causerait une augmentation appréciable de la consommation de café dans la République Fédérale Allemande et, par conséquent, des importations de café. L’article que voici, qui porte à jour une étude de 1963 sous le même titre, présente une analyse économétrique (basée sur la période de 1950 à 1968), à l’aide des réactions relatives trouvées par laquelle on a cherché d’abord à déterminer l’élasticité du prix de la demande de café, et puis, à estimer les conséquences d’une baisse, ou bien d’une abolition totale des droits sur le café. On peut dire qu’en général les résultats de l’étude présente confirment ceux de l’étude de 1963: Etant donnée la conduite actuelle des consommateurs, il faut regarder la demande de café dans la République Fédérale Allemande comme inélastique (c’est à dire, η_p ≪ |o,5|). Par conséquent, une baisse des prix entrainerait une baisse des profits dans le commerce du café. Toute baisse des droits sur le café serait donc toujours passée directement aux consommateurs, sans être absorbée par la marge du commerce. Une abolition totale, par exemple, dans la République Fédérale Allemande, des droits sur le café en 1968 n’aurait baissé les prix de detail du café que par 29,9 pour cent; et elle n’aurait augmenté la consommation de café que par 9,2 pour cent. Par conséquent, une perte de 1044 millions de marks (rapport, en 1968, des droits sur le café) n’aurait même pas été contrebalancée par l’augmentation des importations de seulement 99 millions.

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Resumen Efectos posibles de una reducci?n del impuesto sobre el consumo de café en la República Federal Alemana. — En vista de que en Alemania se grava severamente el consumo de café (cada kilo de café crudo con casi 100% del valor de importación en él comprendido), cabe preguntar, si la reducci?n 0 incluso la abolición de dicho impuesto originaria un aumento sustancial del consumo de café y, por ende, de la importación de café en la Repüblica Federal Alemana. En el présente trabajo, que en el fondo constituye una actualization de un estudio efectuado por el autor en 1963, se intenta estimar, mediante un análisis econométrico (basado en datos del periodo 1950–68), la elasticidad-precio de la demanda de café, as como los efectos que traeria consigo la reducci?n o abolici?n del impuesto sobre el consumo del café. Los resultados obtenidos confirman aquéllos del estudio anterior: la demanda de café parece ser poco elástica con respecto al precio η_p ≪ |o,5|), de manera que reducciones de precio menguarfan los ingresos de los vendedores de café. Debido a ello, no cabe esperar efectos sustanciales de una reduccíon de los impuestos sobre el consumo de café. Así por ejemplo, si en 1968 Alemania hubiera abolido el impuesto, el precio de venta de café sólo hubiera descendido en un 29,9% y el consumo de café sólo hubiera incrementado en un 9,2%; al mismo tiempo, el valor de importación de café hubiera ascendido a 99 millones de marcos, mientras que la pérdida de recaudación tributaria hubiera sido de 1.044 millones de marcos.

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Riassunto Possibili ripercussioni di riduzioni dell’imposta sul caffè sul consumo del caffè nella Repubblica federale di Germania. — L’imposta estremamente alta sul caffè, che per il momento ammonta ancora quasi al 100% del valore medio d’importazione per ogni kg di caffè crudo, ha dato motivo alla questione se una riduzione o una totale soppressione dell’imposta sul caffè possa conduire ad un sensibile aumento del consumo del caffè e quindi dell’importazione del caffè nella Repubblica fédérale di Germania. Nel présente studio, che rappresenta un’attualizzazione di un lavoro dallo stesso nome già preparato nel 1963, è fatto perciò il tentativo per mezzo di un’analisi econometrica (periodo base 1950–1968) di accertare da una parte l’elasticità dei prezzi della domanda di caffè e dall’altra di valutare, con l’aiuto dei rapporti di reazione ricavati dall’analisi, le ripercussioni di riduzione o soppressione deU’imposta sul caffè. I risultati di questa ricerca confermano in sostanza quelli dello studio del 1963. Nella consuetudine attuale vigente, la domanda di caffè nella Repubblica federale di Germania deve essere reputata non elastica per ciò che riguarda i prezzi (cioè η_p ≪ |o,5|), così che riduzioni dei prezzi per il commercio del caffè potrebbero conduire a riduzioni del ricavato. Diminuizioni dell’imposta sul caffè sarebbero perciò inoltrate dal commercio del caffè sempre soltanto direttamente, cioè non avrebbero influsso sul margine di utile del commercio. Perciò per es. una totale eliminazione della tassa sul caffè nella Repubblica federale di Germania nel 1968 avrebbe condotto soltanto ad una diminuizione del caffè al prezzo al minuto del 29,9% e avrebbe causato un aumento di consumo soltanto del 9,2%. Ciò significherebbe che una rinuncia d’imposta di 1044 milioni di marchi (esazione dell’imposta sul caffè 1968) si sarebbe trovata di fronte ad un aumento dell’importazione di soltanto 99 milioni di marchi.

     

Intermedia Substitutability and Market Demand by National Advertisers

We assess substitute and complementary relationships among eight national advertising media classes, as well as the magnitude of their own-price elasticities. We employ a translog demand model, whose parameters we estimate by three-stage least squares, based on 1960–94 annual U.S. data.We find aggregate demand by national advertisers for each of the eight media isown-price inelastic, and that cross-price elasticities suggest slightly more substitutethan complementary relationships, although both are rather weak. These patterns areconsistent with long prevailing institutional arrangements and media selection practices.     

通过纵向整合进行品牌管理

传统的零售渠道正走下坡路，许多制造商，尤其在纺织、家具、皮革制品、体育用品和奢侈品行业，都选择纵向整合作为更有效管理品牌的方法。     

Die volkswirtschaftlichen kosten des umweltschutzes

Summary The Economic Costs of Depollution — An enlarged Input-Output System. — The economic costs of depollution can be calculated by means of an input-output table to which a “pollution matrix” and a “depollution matrix” have been added, provided the tolerable amounts of pollution have been established. Two hypothetical cases are examined: (1) depollution is undertaken exclusively by the state; (2) the relevant production sections are responsible for 50 per cent of depollution (“causer principle”). If, in the two cases, the amounts of final consumption are the same, their values are “inflated” in the same degree by the depollution activities, i.e., by the economic costs of depollution. In both cases the costs are borne by the final consumer — in the first case, through taxation only; in the second, through taxation as well as higher prices. The real effect is a decrease in final provisions per capita of employed.

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Résumé Les co?ts économiques de la dépollution — Un système input-output élargi. — Les co?ts économiques de la dépollution peuvent être calculés au moyen d’un tableau d’input-output, auquel on a ajouté une ?matrice de pollution? et une ?matrice de dépollution?, si l’on a établi les quantités tolérables de pollution. Deux cas hypothétiques sont examinés: 1. la dépollution purement publique; 2. la dépollution réalisée en moitié par les secteurs de production responsables (principe de responsabilité). Si les quantités de consommation finale sont les mêmes dans ces deux cas, leur valeur est ?gonflée? au même degré par les mesures de dépollution, c’est à dire, par les co?ts économiques de la dépollution. Ces co?ts retombent sur le consommateur final: dans le premier cas, à travers l’imposition; dans le second, à travers l’imposition et une hausse des prix. L’effet réel en est une baisse de l’approvisionnement final par employé.

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Resumen Los costos sociales de protección contra la contaminación atmosférica. — Un sistema input-output ampliado. — Los costos sociales de medidas encaminadas a impedir la contaminación atmosférica pueden medirse en el marco de un sistema input-output ampliado por una ?matriz de contaminación? y una ?matriz de menos — abastecimiento?. Ademas se pueden fijar márgenes de tolerancia para la contaminación. El autor analiza dos casos hipotéticos: (1) La proteccion corre exclusivamente a cargo del Estado; (2) Los sectores de producción partitipan en un 50 por 100 en la eliminación de la contaminación. Siendo idéntico en ambos casos el consumo final cuantitativo, el valor del consumo final queda ?inflacionado? de acuerdo con los costos sociales de protección. El consumidor paga estos costos o bien a través de impuestos (1er caso), o bien a través de precios incrementados 2do caso). En términos reales, estos costos producen una reducción en el abastecimiento final por persona empleada.

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Riassunto I costi economici della difesa dell’ainbiente — Un allargato sistema input-output. — I. costi economici della difesa dell’ambiente possono essere accertati per mezzo di una allargata tabella input-output che includa una ?matrice di inquinamento? ed una ?di depurazione?, quando oltre a ciò sono fissate quantità di tolleranza degli inquinamenti. Due casi ipotetici sono esaminati: 1. difesa dell’ambiente condotta totalmente dallo Stato e 2. eliminazione del 50 per cento dell’inquinamento per mezzo dei settori di produzione (?principio di chi lo ha cagionato?). In consumo finale quantitativamente uguale, il valore del consumo finale in ambedue i casi viene ?gonfiato?, per mezzo della difesa attiva dell’ambiente, dello stesso importo, cioè dei costi economici della difesa dell’ambiente. Nel primo caso questi sono sostenuti soltanto per mezzo di imposte, nel secondo caso anche da prezzi aumentati del prodotto sostenuti dal consumatore finale. Realmente essi causano una diminuzione dell’approvigionamento finale per occupato.