Economic Valuation of Health for Environmental Policy: Comparing Alternative Approaches. Introduction and Overview

Protecting human health is a primary goal of environmental policy and economic evaluation of health can help policy-makers judge the relative worth of alternative actions. Economists use two distinct approaches in normatively evaluating health. Whereas environmental economists use benefit-cost analysis supported by monetary valuation in terms of willingness-to-pay, health economists evaluate interventions based on cost-effectiveness or cost-utility analysis (CEA), using quality-adjusted life-years (QALY) or similar indexes. This paper provides background on the controversy about the relative merits of these approaches and introduces the remaining papers in the special issue. These papers (with one exception) were presented at a conference sponsored by the Department of Economics at the University of Central Florida with support from the US Environmental Protection Agency. Although CEA might not lead to substantially different implications for environmental policy than benefit-cost analysis, and QALY may provide a benefit transfer tool to fill gaps in the morbidity valuation literature, the papers in this issue raise serious concerns about the suitability of QALY-based CEA for environmental regulatory analysis. QALY does not in general appropriately represent individual preferences for health and CEA is neither independent of income distribution nor adequate to assess efficiency.     

城市地理学研究新的领域思考

改革开放以来，由于国民经济的迅速发展，我国工业化、城市化的进程明显加快。从国情分析可知，我国的城市化出现了五种特有的现象，这为城市地理学的研究提供了广阔的平台。城市地理学在我国城市发展与城市化的重大问题研究上，长期以来取得了许多重要成果，理论方法上也有重大建树，成为人文科学与自然科学研究领域中最为活跃的一支生力军^①。文章从我国实际出发，提出了城市地理学研究的思维方法及其若干新的研究领域。     

生态经济学基本问题研究

如何审视生态系统、环境系统与经济系统之间的相互关系,关系到对生态经济学基本问题的科学理解,关系到如何运用科学发展观建设和谐社会、实现经济社会持续发展。本文以此为前提,深入研究生态经济学的基本问题,对生态价值、环境价值、经济价值层次的升级,逻辑上的升华及其内在联系进行了探讨。     

农村流动人口研究的社会网络视角

对社会网络理论的发展和应用进行了回顾,重点评述国内外关于流动人口的社会网络研究。国外利用社会网络视角系统研究流动人口的成果相对较少,而国内的流动人口研究主要集中于农村流动人口的网络结构分析和求职网络研究。多数研究只是对个体网络的基本特性作描述性分析,将社会网络作为研究对象而不是研究方法。对未来利用社会网络分析方法进行农村流动人口的研究提出了展望。     

论公允价值在非货币性交易中的适度应用

新企业会计准则实施后，公允价值的一些问题成为会计理论研究和关注的焦点问题之一。应着重分析在非货币性交易中，适度应用公允价值须掌握的计价基础判断标准、公允价值计量、公允价值核算等几个容易混淆的问题。所谓适度即准确把握公允价值的判断标准、计价基础、计量核算方法，以避免公允价值成为利润操纵工具。     

论人民币内外价值偏离

近几年来,人民币同时面临对外升值和对内贬值的双向压力。本文以“一价定律”为理论视角,分析了人民币内外价值偏离的表现及其危害,并从涉外经济政策层面探讨了内外价值偏离的深层原因,进而提出纠正人民币内外价值偏离的对策性建议。     

试析森林生态环境价值计量研究中的几种干扰因素

本文就目前影响在林生态环境价值计量研究的几个干扰因素进行剖析。其中主要包括森林生态环境难以进入市场的原因；在林生态环境资源并不是都重要计量；森林生态环境的价值既是哲学的价值也是经济学上的价值；森林的生态环境转移与它的价值转移没有实现统一；森林生态环境价值计量使用的概念需要明确和统一；在林生态环境资源的监测和统计；影子价格理论在森林生态环境价值计量中应用的合理性；森林生态环境资源生产的投入产出进行过程等问题。这些问题如果得到及时解决，将有助于在林生态环境计量的进一步研究。     

Values, prices of production and market prices: some more evidence from the Greek economy

This paper extends the empirical investigation of the relationbetween labour values and different price forms in the caseof the Greek economy. Subjecting the labour theory of valueto empirical tests with data from various countries helps inthe derivation of general conclusions regarding its empiricalvalidity and practical usefulness. Our results on the closenessof values and prices as measured by their absolute deviationand correlation, the shape of the wage–profit curves,the predictive power of labour values over market prices comparedwith other ‘value bases’, and the comparison offundamental Marxian categories when estimated in value and priceterms provide further support for the empirical strength ofthe labour theory of value.     

Willingness to Pay to Reduce Mortality Risks: Evidence from a Three-Country Contingent Valuation Study

Valuing a change in the risk of death is a key input into the calculation of the benefits of environmental policies that save lives. Typically such risks are monetized using the Value of a Statistical Life (VSL). Since the majority of the lives saved by environmental policies are those of older persons, there has been much recent debate about whether the VSL should be lower for the elderly to reflect their fewer remaining life years. We conducted a contingent valuation survey in the UK, Italy and France designed to answer this question. The survey was administered in these three countries following a standardized protocol. Our results suggest that the VSL is €1.022 million or €2.264 million, depending on whether we use median or mean WTP. The VSL is not significantly lower for older persons, but is higher for persons who have been admitted to a hospital or emergency room for cardiovascular and respiratory problems. Income is positively and significantly associated with WTP. The income elasticities of the WTP increase gradually with income levels and are between 0.15 and 0.5 for current income levels in EU countries. We use the responses to the WTP questions to estimate the value of an extension in remaining life expectancy. The value of a loss of one year’s life expectancy is €54,000 or €163,000.     

The hidden value of air transportation infrastructure

Air transportation is a key strategic asset in that it provides access to markets and thereby enables the economic development of nations. Thus, in order to maintain their competitiveness in a global economy, countries must invest in air transportation infrastructure to ensure their ability to meet current and future demand for aviation services. The objective of this paper is to develop and illustrate a methodology for evaluating the strategic value of air transportation infrastructure, in particular the benefits associated with the ability to react quickly to changes in the market. The hypothesis is that by recognizing and taking advantage of this strategic value, it may be possible to design better policies for aviation infrastructure delivery.The methodology developed here uses system dynamics to model different strategies for infrastructure delivery. These strategies are defined by three variables: the amount of capacity increase, the time to deliver the capacity and the congestion threshold that triggers the need for capacity delivery. Monte Carlo simulation is used to take into account multiple sources of uncertainty. The model shows that a strategy of capacity delivery based on small increments and short response times can yield more benefits than strategies that consider large capacity increases and long response times. Furthermore, in the specific airport example considered here, it was found that a congestion threshold of 75% should be the trigger for capacity enlargements if strategies based on small capacity increments and 1 or 5 years to increase capacity are considered. The lesson for decision-makers is that congestion delays must be addressed with foresight.