Risk Management Using Quasi–static Hedging

In this paper, we try to develop a comprehensive theory of risk management for illiquid trading instruments and exotics by examining the consequences of a quasi–static hedging strategy. In contrast to a static hedging strategy, in which an initial hedge once executed is kept in place for the life of the trade, and a dynamic hedging strategy, in which hedges are frequently adjusted over the life of the trade, a quasi–static hedging strategy utilizes hedge adjustments but tries to minimize the frequency. Almost all the examples studied in the framework introduced here take this minimization to the extreme by limiting hedge adjustments to at most one during the life of a trade. We examine the application of this approach to long–dated forwards, long–dated options and exotic options such as cliquet and barriers. The model we present for barriers is a new generation of the Derman–Ergener–Kani approach which combines the flexibility of the approach with a sizable increase in model independence.     

The T-Group: Short cut or short circuit?

T-group or sensitivity training has become popular in recent years. A T -group includes eight to twelve people and a qualified leader; its purpose can be to provide therapy or to promote personal improvement or organization development. Beset by organizational problems, some top executives have instituted T-groups, thinking they may be a panacea. In some cases this approach has improved morale and even increased productivity. In other cases the hierarchical structure of the company has been damaged, economic gain has been condemned, and profits have been affected. T-groups can have a useful role if top management rationally decides the proper ends and means for this powerful tool.     

Control of unfair terms in consumer contracts in Israel: Law and practice

This paper explains the need for both administrative and judicial control of unfair terms in standard contracts. The 1982 Israel Standard Contracts Law involves both guided judicial review and administrative control by a Standard Contracts Tribunal. Presented here is an analysis of the enforcement of the law rather than a purely theoretical approach. The Tribunal's involvement is much more effective than that of the courts as revealed by the remarkably small number of published court decisions. One can attribute the Tribunal's success to the close cooperation between the Ministry of Justice and the consumer organizations. The example of construction contracts was selected to illustrate the effective control of the Tribunal; however, weaknesses of the system are not disregarded and suggestions for amendments are proposed. A major conclusion reached is that administrative control is more effective than judicial control. A second conclusion is that the future lies in involuntary administrative control, a trend already in progress in the Israeli legal system.

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Die Kontrolle unfairer Klauseln in Kaufverträgen mit Konsumenten in Israel

Zusammenfassung Die meisten Kaufverträge sind Standardverträge und enthalten folglich häufig unfaire Klauseln. Zum Schutz berechtigter Verbraucherinteressen ist deshalb eine Kontrolle solcher Verträge nötig. Das israelische Gesetz über allgemeine Geschäftsbedingungen aus dem Jahre 1982 führte eine doppelte Kontrolle ein: zum einen eine gerichtliche Überprüfung und zum andern eine Verwaltungskontrolle in Form eines Sonderverfahrens für allgemeine Geschäftsbedingungen (Standard Contracts Tribunal). Die wesentlichen Züge dieses Gesetzes werden skizziert. Besondere Bedeutung wird innovativen Elementen, wie der Anwendungsbreite und der mutmaßlichen Unbilligkeit bestimmter Klauseln, beigemessen. Die Struktur und Vorgehensweise des Sonderverfahrens werden diskutiert.Der Beitrag bietet eine Analyse des Vollzuges des Gesetzes durch gerichtliche Entscheidungen und einen Überblick über die Tätigkeit des Sonderverfahrens. Dabei zeigt sich einerseits, daß die Gerichte nur selten befaßt waren und nur wenige Fälle veröffentlicht wurden, andererseits, daß die Durchführung des Sonderverfahrens wesentlich effektiver und besser organisiert war. Der relative Erfolg der Verwaltungskontrolle durch dieses Sonderverfahren beruht zu einem erheblichen Teil auf der aktiven Rolle des Justizministeriums und der Verbraucherorganisationen. Das Ministerium erarbeitete Richtlinien, nach denen die Standardverträge und allgemeinen Geschäftsbedingungen zur Überprüfung ausgewählt wurden. Kaufverträge für Wohneigentum werden herangezogen, um die Effektivität des Sonderverfahrens zu illustrieren.Die Verwaltungskontrolle durch das Sonderverfahren ist zwar nicht frei von bestimmten Schwachpunkten, und der Beitrag macht einige Vorschläge für Verbesserungen, die auch den gesetzgebenden Körperschaften in Israel übermittelt wurden.Was aber insgesamt die Effektivität anbelangt, so zeigt sich eine Überlegenheit der Verwaltungskontrolle gegenüber der gerichtlichen Überprüfung. In Zukunft sollte die Vorlage von allgemeinen Geschäftsbedingungen zur Prüfung vor dem Sonderverfahren eine Mußvorschrift werden. Der Übergang von freiwilliger zur Pflichtkontrolle könnte — zusammen mit anderen Regelungen — den Schutz des Konsumenten vor unfairen Vertragsbestimmungen weiter verbessern.

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Sinai Deutch is Professor of Consumer Law, Bar-Ilan Faculty of Law, Ramat-Gan, Israel 52100, and Legal Adviser to the Histadrut Consumer Protection Authority. The article is based on a lecture given in the 1st International Conference on Consumer Law in Sao Paulo, Brazil, May 1989.     

Econometric modelling in finance and risk management: An overview

This paper gives an overview about the sixteen papers included in this special issue. The papers in this special issue cover a wide range of topics. Such topics include discussing a class of tests for correlation, estimation of realized volatility, modeling time series and continuous-time models with long-range dependence, estimation and specification testing of time series models, estimation in a factor model with high-dimensional problems, finite-sample examination of quasi-maximum likelihood estimation in an autoregressive conditional duration model, and estimation in a dynamic additive quantile model.     

Interstate banking and the payments system

Interstate banking will improve the efficiency of the payments system. This will occur because the number of handlings for multiple-bank payments (transit items) will fall and because some multiple-bank payments will be transformed into single-bank payments (on-us items). These effects are simulated using data on the current cross-section relationship between banking structure and check clearing patterns in a multinomial logit model. The Federal Reserve, which currently processes almost one-third of all checks, is predicted to lose 43 to 60 percent of its market share. The annual impact is expected to be gradual, however, since interstate banking will be phased in and because of offsetting growth in the total check clearing market.     

The Effect of Board Independence on Target Shareholder Wealth

We seek insights into whether, and if so how, an independent board enhances the bid premiums offered to target firm shareholders during a takeover. The results indicate that the presence of an independent board enhances the initial bid premium by, on average, 21.1%. However, the results of more refined analysis suggest that the enhanced bid premium is in fact driven by independent boards comprising non-executive directors who have reputation capital at stake. We also find that independent boards that resist takeovers or include voluntary independent expert reports in target statements, increase the bid premium revision by, on average, 15.6% and 16.2%, respectively.     

The new retirement reality: calculating the true cost of retirement income adequacy

Recognizing that 401(k) plans are emerging as many employees' sole source of employer-sponsored retirement income, plan sponsors are increasingly adding paternalistic plan features to increase the amount--and effectiveness--of dollars invested in 401(k) accounts. The authors describe the results of a study they prepared for Hewitt Associates that assesses retirement income adequacy for individuals represented in a plan participant database of 1.8 million individuals. The study includes analysis of retirement income adequacy for the aggregate population as well as the results for different subgroups, reflecting factors such as whether individuals actively contribute; the impact of different levels of retiree medical coverage; and the presence of a defined benefit pension. Finally, the authors discuss how plan sponsors can bolster the adequacy of retirement income from 401(k) plans, depending on employer objectives.     

E-Finance: An Introduction

E-finance is defined as “The provision of financial services and markets using electronic communication and computation”. In this paper we outline research issues related to e-finance that we believe set the stage for further work in this field. Three areas are focused on. These are the use of electronic payments systems, the operations of financial services firms and the operation of financial markets. A number of research issues are raised. For example, is the widespread use of paper-based checks efficient? Will the financial services industry be fundamentally changed by the advent of the Internet? Why have there been such large differences in changes to market microstructure across different financial markets?