Uniform and Non-Uniform Second-Best Input Taxes

We investigate second-best, input-based taxes foragricultural nonpoint pollution control when marketprices are endogenous and production isheterogeneous. Theoretically, we derive the optimalforms of taxes which take account of heterogeneity(non-uniform taxes) and a tax which does not (auniform tax). Empirically, we use a multi-factor,market-equilibrium simulation model to determineoptimal tax rates and associated equity effects,particularly differences in landowner gains/lossesacross a heterogeneous region. When market prices areendogenous, second-best tax policies result inpecuniary externalities that affect existingenvironmental externalities. In particular, thepecuniary externalities amplify the effect of producerheterogeneity on determination of sub-regionaldifferences in tax rates and returns to land,particularly for the uniform policy. With endogenousprices, the uniform tax rate is considerably higherthan any of the non-uniform rates and, ironically, thenon-uniform taxes result in less dispersion oflandowner gains across sub-regions than the uniformtax.     

Cleaning the balance sheets of commercial banks in Eastern Europe and their role in corporate governance

We have… the makings of a genuine paradox that constitutes the most fundamental systemic obstacle to the economictransformation in Eastern Europe: the most impor tant aspect of the transition to a spontaneously functioning market economy cannot be initiated by market forces themselves. Indeed, the only force powerful enough to set the market forces in motion is the very state that is suppo sed to remove itself from the picture. And for a number of reasons, the state may be unable to accomplish this task. Frydman and Rapaczynski [ b, p. 268].     

The keynesian and classical determination of the exchange rate

Zusammenfassung Die Bestimmung des Wechselkurses im keynesianischen und klassischen Model. — Im Modell des langfristigen Gleichgewichts wird bei vollkommener Kapitalmobilit?t der Zinssatz durch das Zusammenwirken der Weltm?rkte für Güter und Kapital bestimmt, und zwar sowohl nach Keynes als auch nach der Quantit?tstheorie. Beide Ans?tze haben im Hinblick auf die internationalen Zusammenh?nge eines gemeinsam: Die nationalen Güterm?rkte geben den Gleichgewichtswert des realen Wechselkurses an. Dieser Aufsatz unterstreicht auch die Wirkung einer expansiven Geldpolitik auf den realen Wechselkurs und das Realeinkommen im Rahmen der keynesianischen Theorie und auf den realen und nominalen Wechselkurs sowie das Preisniveau im klassischen Modell, und zwar sowohl bei nur einem Land als auch im Zwei-L?nder-Fall. Was die langfristigen Wirkungen betrifft, so ergibt sich im Zwei-L?nder-Fall des keynesianischen Modells, eine Senkung des Zinssatzes auf dem Weltmarkt, eine Zunahme des heimischen und eine Abnahme des ausl?ndischen Einkommens sowie ein Anstieg des Wechselkurses, wobei der reale mit dem nominalen identisch ist. Beim klassischen Ansatz muβ man zwischen Auβengeld- und Innengeld-Operationen unterscheiden, weil nur letztere den Zinssatz beeinflussen. Eine expansive Geldpolitik gleich welcher Art l?βt den realen Wechselkurs unver?ndert, jedenfalls auf lange Sicht.

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Résumé La détermination keynésienne et classique du taux de change. — Donnée la mobilité parfaite du capital et l’équilibre à long terme l’interaction des marchés mondiaux des biens et de la monnaie détermine le taux d’intérêt en cadre keynésien aussi bien qu’en cadre de la théorie quantitative. Les deux approches ont, s’ils sont transposés dans le contexte de l’économie internationale, un aspect essentiel en commun: les marchés des biens nationaux indiquent la valeur d’équilibre du taux de change réel. De plus, cet article démontre l’effet d’une politique monétaire expansionniste sur le taux de change réel et sur le revenu réel en cadre keynésien, et sur le taux réel et nominal aussi bien que sur le niveau de prix en cadre classique, dans un modèle à seulement un pays et à deux pays. Regardant les effets à long terme dans le contexte d’un modèle à deux pays du type keynésien, le taux d’intérêt mondial et le revenu étranger baissent, le revenu intérieur et le taux de change (réel identique au taux nominal) montent. Au cas de l’approche classique il faut différencier entre des opérations du ?outside? et ?inside money?, parce qu’elles ne sont que les dernières qui affectent le taux d’intérêt. Une politique monétaire expansionniste de deux types n’influence pas le taux de change réel, au moins à long terme.

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Resumen La determinación keynesiana y clàsica de la tasa de cambio. — Bajo movilidad perfecta del capital y bajo consideraciones de equilibrio de largo plazo, la interacción de los mercados mundiales de bienes y dinero determina la tasa de interés tanto dentro de un marco keynesiano como de uno teórico-cuantitativo. Ambos planteamientos, cuando son transpuestos a un contexto de la economía international, tienen una característica esencial en común: los mercados de bienes nacionales indican el valor de equilibrio de la tasa de cambio real. En este artículo también se establece el efecto de una política monetaria expansiva sobre la tasa de cambio real y el ingreso real en el marco keynesiano, y sobre la tasa de cambio real y nominal y el nivel de precios en el maxco clásico, ambos dentro de un modelo de uno y de dos países. En cuanto a los efectos de largo plazo se refiere, dentro del contexto de un modelo keynesiano de dos países hay una caída en la tasa de interés mundial y el ingreso externo, y un alza en el ingreso interno y la tasa de cambio (real idéntica a la nominal). Para el planteamiento clásico se debe diferenciar entre operaciones monetarias externas e internas, porque sólo las últimas afectan la tasa de interés. Una política monetaria expansiva de ambos tipos deja la tasa de cambio real invariable, por lo menos en el largo plazo.

     

I. Allgemeine wirstchaftslehre

Ohne Zusammenfassung     

The contribution of urban and regional planning towards regional development in Southern Africa

Regional planning experienced a fast growth in South Africa, both in theory and practice, since the mid sixties. This growth was made possible by government support for regional planning and development and thus had a direct and beneficial effect on the development of less developed regions.

This paper describes the factors, both in SA and abroad, which contributed towards the growth of regional planning. It also outlines other contributions of regional planners and planning towards development of less developed regions.     

Cost-effective design of agri-environmental payment programs: U.S. experience in theory and practice

Key features of U.S. agri-environmental programs are reviewed and analyzed using literature review and program data. We focus, in particular, on several key questions: Has benefit-cost targeting increased the environmental benefit obtained from program budgets? Has competitive bidding reduced program costs? To what extent have these program designs resulted in additional gain (that would not have otherwise been obtained)? Previous research illustrates how benefit-cost targeting using environmental indices (such as the Environmental Benefits Index in the Conservation Reserve Program) can increase environmental cost-effectiveness. Previous research and data from two U.S. programs suggests that bidding has reduced costs, but that the full potential of bidding may not have been realized. Finally, most U.S. programs are intended to yield environmental gains that would not have otherwise been obtained, but sometimes fall short of this goal.     

Focal points for improving communications about electromagnetic fields and health: a mental models approach

Central to the precautionary policy is the provision of information about electromagnetic fields (EMF) technology, exposures, potential health risks and exposure management actions to the public. To meet this need at the broadest level, beyond the specific technology foci of previous research, a research project was commissioned as part of Dutch Electromagnetic Fields and Health Research Programme. This study provides an assessment of Dutch EMF information needs from an ensemble of sources by addressing people’s existing ideas and beliefs, using a mental models approach. A summary expert model of influences on and consequences of exposure derived from search of the relevant literature is informed by interviews with 15 scientists and professionals with diverse expertise. Although the professionals characterize the physical characteristics and psychological aspects of exposure to EMF in daily life similarly, there is no consensus regarding potential health effects. Interviews with 12 lay people followed by a confirmatory survey of the general Dutch public (n = 403) reveal not only wide variation in beliefs regarding potential health effects of EMF, but also overestimation of the amount of radiation from public sources relative to personal sources of EMF. People do not feel adequately informed by the government about EMF, and knowledge of government policies on EMF is limited. Together, the evidence suggests three focal points for improving EMF risk communications: providing more clarity regarding the uncertainty of evidence for health effects, illuminating personal EMF exposures in daily life and providing more accessible and transparent information on governmental policies.