EFFECTS OF PUBLIC EXPENDITURE ON PRODUCTION, INCOMES AND EMPLOYMENT IN FINLAND

This study examines the effects of public expenditure on production activity and private consumption activity. An input-output model with consumption functions connected is used for evaluating the repercussions of public expenditure. Taking both production and consumption repercussions into account, it is concluded that in the year 1965 public expenditure generated 26 percent of domestic incomes and 18 percent of imports. Viewed in terms of the shares of different types of income generated, 72 percent of public expenditure goes to domestic income, and the remaining 28 percent to imports. Forty-five percent of public expenditure returns directly as income to general government. The study also examines the effects of public expenditure by industry and over time (1959 to 1965).     

Gender and organisational position: predicting victimisation of cyberbullying behaviour in working life

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to investigate possible predictors of cyberbullying behaviour in working life by examining previously known predictors of face-to-face bullying as well as demographic variables such as gender and formal position in the work organisation. Multiple regression analyses were conducted on a random sample of 3371 respondents. The results show that a poor social climate at work predicted exposure to cyberbullying behaviour. The study also found differences related to gender and organisational position. While low support from managers was related to higher exposure to cyberbullying behaviours for men managers, men non-managers and women non-managers, this relation did not apply to women managers. For women managers alone, low support from colleagues was associated with exposure to cyberbullying behaviours. Further, only for women managers age had no protective effect of exposure to cyberbullying behaviour. These findings imply that men and women have different social experiences in terms of holding power in working life. As women managers are in a minority in working life, other factors may be involved in predicting exposure to cyberbullying behaviour for women managers than for the other three groups. This article contributes to the sparse knowledge on cyberbullying in working life by recognising triggering factors.