Integrating accounting and statistics: Forecasting,budgeting and production planning at the American Telephone and Telegraph Company during the 1920s

Drawing on the scholarly perspectives of James R. Beniger and Alfred D. Chandler, we examine a long‐term process of firm‐specific learning at the American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T). Extensive archival records reveal the firm's efforts to improve its informational resources for market planning, capital budgeting and production scheduling in the 1920s. These initiatives were meant to minimise the likelihood of a repetition of the financial crisis that nearly drove AT&T into bankruptcy in 1906–07. The informational innovation was costly as it required specialised human capital, the identification of suitable metrics corresponding to underlying business processes and the integration of these metrics within the elements of a complex firm. Such a transformation developed more reliable forecasting of future demand for telecommunication services. Central to this process was the adaptation of new econometric methodologies for predicting business cycle fluctuations and the integration of these findings into operational plans. Reforms of this sort helped to quantify risk and reduce internal asymmetries that threatened to undermine the smooth, integrative management of AT&T's corporate headquarters unit, its regional operating subsidiaries and Western Electric, its captive manufacturing arm. Our study contributes to a deeper understanding of the historical evolution of management accounting by studying firm‐specific learning to combat external uncertainties and internal information asymmetries in the coordination and control of a giant business enterprise.