Environmental Kuznets Curve with Adjusted Net Savings as a Trade‐Off Between Environment and Development

The Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) hypothesises that emissions first increase at low stages of development then decrease once a certain threshold has been reached. The EKC concept is usually used with per capita Gross Domestic Product as the explanatory variable. As others, we find mixed evidence, at best, of such a pattern for CO₂ emissions with respect to per capita GDP. We also show that the share of manufacture in GDP and governance/institutions play a significant role in the CO₂ emissions–income relationship. As GDP presents shortcomings in representing income, development in a broad perspective or human well‐being, it is then replaced by the World Bank's Adjusted Net Savings (ANS, also known as Genuine Savings). Using the ANS as an explanatory variable, we show that the EKC is generally empirically supported for CO₂ emissions. We also show that human capital and natural capital are the main drivers of the downward sloping part of the EKC.