日元作为国际储备货币的实证研究

本文利用计量经济模型对作为国际储备的日元进行了实证研究,并以实证结果为依据进一步解释了日元国际储备地位变动的原因,大致得出如下结论:日元国际储备地位的变动是多变量共同作用的结果,其中日本GDP和日元资产收益率起到了重要作用。     

Navigating the trilemma: Capital flows and monetary policy in China

In recent years China has faced an increasing trilemma—how to pursue an independent domestic monetary policy and limit exchange rate flexibility, while at the same time facing large and growing international capital flows. This paper analyzes the impact of the trilemma on China's monetary policy as the country liberalizes its good and financial markets and integrates with the world economy. It shows how China has sought to insulate its reserve money from the effects of balance of payments inflows by sterilizing through the issuance of central bank liabilities. However, we report empirical results indicating that sterilization dropped precipitously in 2006 in the face of the ongoing massive buildup of international reserves, leading to a surge in reserve money growth.We also estimate a vector error correction model linking the surge in China's reserve money to broad money, real GDP, and the price level. We use this model to explore the inflationary implications of different policy scenarios. Under a scenario of continued rapid reserve money growth (consistent with limited sterilization of foreign exchange reserve accumulation) and strong economic growth, the model predicts a rapid increase in inflation. A model simulation using an extension of the framework that incorporates recent increases in bank reserve requirements also implies a rapid rise in inflation. By contrast, model simulations incorporating a sharp slowdown in economic growth such as that seen in late 2008 and 2009 lead to less inflation pressure even with a substantial buildup in international reserves.     

Implications of the effective revaluation of reserve asset gold: The case for a gold account for development

International agreement was reached in the early 1970s that the future creation of international reserves would be largely via SDR allocations, to be distributed to individual countries in proportion to their quotas in the IMF. In this manner, the international monetary system would play a ‘neutral’ role in the creation and distribution of international reserves. It has become increasingly apparent in recent years, however, that the international monetary system has been far from neutral in its distribution of international liquidity. The de facto revaluation of reserve asset gold has led to a massive creation of international reserves — nearly $500 billion by the end of 1979 — which has served to benefit almost exclusively the major gold-holding countries, all among the wealthiest of the industrialized nations.Unlike the major gold-holding countries, which throughout the Bretton Woods era converted two-thirds of their foreign exchange holdings into gold, the large majority of developing countries acted on the basis of the United States pledge that the dollar was ‘as good as gold’. As a result, the quantitative analysis presented in this paper shows that developing countries have foregone reserve holdings in excess of $100 billion. To partially redress the inequitable distribution of international reserves which has arisen from the de facto revaluation of reserve asset gold — and at the same time to promote a significant transfer of resources to developing countries — this paper proposes the establishment of a ‘Gold Account for Development’ based on official gold holdings, outlines the various forms which such an account might take, and discusses the political acceptability of the proposals.     

IT MAY BE OUR CURRENCY,BUT IT'S YOUR PROBLEM

The dollar's dominance of international transactions and role as a reserve currency is an exorbitant privilege that is a burden as well as a blessing for the US. It achieved this dominance early in the twentieth century, quite quickly in fact; it may also see that status change equally quickly were the world to move to a multipolar system of currencies. Among the most likely candidates for reserve currencies in such a world are the dollar, the euro, and the Chinese renminbi, Barry Eichengreen explained in his Butlin Lecture earlier in 2011.     

The high demand for international reserves in the Far East: What is going on?

This paper explores econometric and theoretical interpretations for the relatively high demand for international reserves by countries in the Far East and the relatively low demand by some other developing countries. Using a sample of about 125 developing countries, we show that reserve holdings over 1980–1996 seem to be the predictable outcome of a few key factors, such as the size of international transactions, their volatility, the exchange-rate arrangement, and political considerations. The estimating equation does a good job of predicting reserve holdings in Asia before the 1997 financial crisis. After the crisis, the estimating equation significantly underpredicts the reserve holdings of several key Far East countries, as one might expect from the Lucas Critique. This underprediction is consistent with models explaining reserve demand in developing countries. Specifically, we show that sovereign risk and costly tax collection to cover fiscal liabilities lead to a relatively large precautionary demand for international reserves. In the aftermath of a crisis, countries that have to deal with higher perceived sovereign risk and higher fiscal liabilities (both funded and unfunded) will opt to increase their demand for reserves. The models also help us understand why some developing countries do not hold large precautionary reserve balances in the aftermath of crises. Countries with high discount rates, political instability or political corruption find it optimal to hold smaller precautionary balances. We also show that models that incorporate loss aversion predict a relatively large demand for international reserves. Hence, if a crisis increases the volatility of shocks and/or loss aversion, it will greatly increase the demand for international reserves. Consequently, we conclude that the ‘puzzling’ pattern in international reserve holdings is reasonably explained by the extended models described in this paper.     

加强外汇储备动态管理的对策研究

适度的外汇储备对于保证国家金融与经济安全、维持汇率稳定以及增强我国国际信誉有着重要作用。外汇储备并非越多越好,过多外汇储备会产生诸多问题,积累各种风险。在金融危机影响不断加深的情况下,有必要对我国外汇储备进行动态管理,尽快研究外汇储备的规模管理、结构管理、效率管理与政策管理,以实现外汇储备的安全、保值与增值目的。     

论超主权国际货币的构建对世界经济的影响

金融危机的不断发生暴露出现行的国际货币体系的诸多弊端和不足,构建超主权国际货币则是国际货币制度改革的方向。汇率的稳定以及国际储备资产价值的稳定对于一国国际经济的发展尤为重要,为此世界各国希望有一种有效的国际储备货币以减轻汇率波动所带来的负面影响,这种国际储备货币便是超主权货币。文章从国际货币体系对国际贸易和国际金融的影响方面进行了探讨,进一步分析了超主权国际货币的构建对世界经济的影响。     

人民币升值与人民币国际化

美国以贸易平衡与就业问题为借口,逼迫人民币升值的真正目的是想通过削弱中国经济以减缓或消除人民币对美元构成的威胁,维护美元霸权。因此,人民币应加速国际化。只有人民币国际化才能有效保障经济国际化过程中中国经济的核心利益;只有人民币成为国际主要结算货币和储备货币,国际储备货币才能形成三足鼎立的稳定结构——这十分有利于国际货币体系治理结构的改善。     

Financial Market Volatility and International Reserve Holding Behaviour: A Case Study for Korea,Indonesia, the Philippines,and Thailand

Abstract

The effects of financial market volatility on the international reserve holding behaviour of four Asian countries that experienced the financial crisis in 1997—Korea, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Thailand are investigated. The financial market volatility is modelled and the effect on reserve dynamics, reserve accumulation, and reserve volatility is estimated. Estimations are taken for two periods—pre- and post-crisis—and the structural break test is performed to examine the change in the effects on reserve holding behaviour. The empirical results, in general, support the evidence for the structural change in the effects on reserve holding behaviour after the crisis. This would be one of the evidences of the precautionary motive for reserve holdings after the crisis.     

货币的国际可交易性与国际货币体系改革

货币的国际可交易性指货币在国际经济活动中得到普遍接受、持有者很容易用它去交换世界各国商品的性质。要准确衡量货币的国际可交易性，必须把使用量和使用范围综合考虑。以货币的国际可交易性来衡量，美元是当之无愧的第一大国际货币，全面发挥了国际间的价值尺度、流通手段和储藏手段的职能。货币的国际可交易性与国际货币体系之间有密切的关系...     

美元将在“全球赎买”中走向衰败

美元的“全球赎买”引发了全球危机，又将在“全球赎买”浪潮中由强变弱，并最终丧失其“一元独大”的国际货币地位。判断美元的未来，就是看美元能不能继续保持国际储备贷币、国际结算货币以及国际初级产品定价货币三个重要的国际货币地位。本文区分了两种不同的金融危机，即市场失衡的金融危机和操纵或泛滥货币的金融危机，当前全球所面对的正是因为美国放任美元的道义责任所引发的操纵或泛滥货币的全球金融危机。美元正在经历“顺向为王、逆向衰败”的发展前景，美元衰败之时有可能就是美国解体之日。美元的衰败，对人民币既是机遇也是挑战。中国（尤其是人民币）的前途就是决战金融全球化。     

我国石油储备成本分析与控制研究

为了实现国家石油安全，抵御国际石油市场价格数量波动风险，我国正在进行持续稳定石油储备建设。文章通过分析石油储备的储备设施的一次性投入、采购石油所需资金和运行维护费用成本，比较不同储备模式条件下储备成本差异，通过采购成本控制、储存成本控制、动用成本控制和风险防范措施实现石油储备成本控制，最终实现低成本、高效益的石油储备体系。     

人民币升值压力与国际化问题分析

近一段时间,关于促进人民币国际化进程,或逐渐成为国际储备货币的议论浮出水面。与此同时,人民币新一轮升值压力也接踵而来,由此关于人民币国际化与升值压力问题众说纷纭,莫衷一是。如何评价和评估人民币国际化或是成为国际储备货币与升值压力的关系,是当前中国国际金融战略需要思考的又一重要课题。     

The Euro as a Reserve Currency

This paper presents historical and econometric evidence that the euro will come to rival the dollar as a reserve currency only slowly. The fact that it pays for central banks to hold their foreign reserves in a currency that is widely used in international transactions creates a network externality that gives the dollar an incumbency advantage. In addition, creating a market with sufficient stability to be attractive to international investors requires continuous liquidity management and periodic lender-of-last-resort operations by the issuing central bank. That the Maastricht Treaty assumes a strong separation between monetary policy and prudential regulation consequently bodes ill for the euro's prospects as a reserve currency.J. Japan. Int. Econ., Dec. 1998,12(4), pp. 483–506. Department of Economics and Department of Political Science, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720.Copyright 1998 Academic Press.Journal of Economic LiteratureClassification Number F3.     

The value of gold as a reserve asset

An unresolved feature of the present international monetary system is the absence of any agreement, formal or informal, as to the appropriate price at which gold held as a reserve asset is to be valued. This omission has become increasingly evident in recent months as the market price of gold has surged to levels 10 times as high as the former official price. While the majority of countries continue to value gold at the former official price, an increasing number have adopted valuations based on the market price. The existing ambigous situation with respect to gold valuation is not a viable one and, if present trends continue, the likely result will be a de facto revaluation of gold reserves at the market price. The quantitative implications of this are enormous, for the effective level of world reserves doubles when gold is valued at the current market price. Such a revaluation of gold would have a large impact on the future evolution of the international monetary system and, in particular, would cast a considerable degree of doubt on the possibility of attaining the internationally agreed goal of making special drawing rights (SDR) the principal reserve asset. In addition, the distribution of the increased international liquidity which has resulted from the rise in the market price of gold has been highly uneven, since world gold reserves are concentrated in a very small number of countries. A number of other countries, notably the non-oil-exporting developing countries, have strong grounds for objecting to the fact that this large increase in international liquidity has occurred as a result of an effective revaluation of gold rather than via increased allocations of SDR.     

Managing the Monetary Consequences of Reserve Accumulation in Emerging Asia

Abstract

The huge increase in international reserve holdings by Asian countries since the 1997 crisis has been one of the most important recent developments on the international financial scene. These buildups have contributed substantially to concerns about the creation of excessive global liquidity. How justified these concerns are depends heavily on the extent to which the reserve accumulating countries have been able to sterilize the effects on their domestic monetary aggregates. We use a unified theoretical framework to undertake dynamic estimations of the magnitude of sterilization and offset coefficients (which measure the degree of capital mobility) for a large set of Asian economies. We find that despite substantial capital mobility there has been a high degree of effective sterilization to date.     

关于国际铸币税收益的再探讨

铸币税是一个国家的中央银行凭借着发行货币的权利而得到的一种类似于税收的收益,而国际铸币税则是一个国家凭借着本国货币的国际储备货币地位所获得一种类似于国内铸币税收益。国际铸币税收益有流量和存量之分,美国凭借着美元的主要国际储备货币地位获得了巨额的国际铸币税收益。但是,国际铸币税在性质上是一种债务,一旦美国经济地位下降,美国将返还以前的国际铸币税收益,从而有可能对持有美元的国家造成重大损失,也可能对美国经济带来严重的不利影响。     

Optimum international reserves and sovereign risk: Evidence from India

This paper empirically determines the optimal level of international reserves for India by explicitly incorporating the country's sovereign risk associated with the default on external debt. The optimum level of reserves is determined by minimizing the central bank's cost function, which consists of costs due to high reserve holdings and costs due to reserve depletion. The simulated optimum reserves for the period 1994–2010 indicate that actual reserves are higher than the optimum value across the sample period, except during 1997–1998.     

中国石油安全形势与对策

中国的石油安全形势主要有:石油供需矛盾突出、进口来源过于集中、运输线路单一、国际政治环境恶劣和石油储备不足。建议通过以下对策来保障中国供应安全:扩大同其他石油进口国合作,消除不稳定因素,维护中东稳定;加大与石油出口国合作的深度和广度,发展巩固与产油国的良好关系;协调消费国在石油出口国的油田投资以及应对石油供应意外中断等突发事件方面的行动;扩大石油战略储备规模;节约石油消费;加大本土石油勘探力度;参与海外石油资源勘探开发获取份额油;实现石油进口运输路线多元化。     

现行国际货币体系改革探析

由美国次贷危机引发的金融危机极大地暴露了现行国际货币体系的弊端,表明了现行国际货币体系与经济发展的不适应性。本文对现行国际货币体系的缺陷进行了分析,并提出了对现行国际货币体系改革的思路和对策:建立统一超主权国际储备货币、改革国际汇率制度、改革IMF的职能和作用。