Is spatial planning a collaborative learning process? A case study from a rural–urban gradient in Sweden

International and national policies stress the importance of spatial planning for the long-term sustainability of regions. This paper identifies the extent to which the spatial planning in a Swedish region can be characterised as a collaborative learning process. By combining qualitative interviews and systems thinking methods we analysed the main attributes of public-led spatial (i.e. comprehensive) planning in nine municipalities representing a steep urban–rural gradient in the Bergslagen region of Central Sweden. We show that the attributes of strategic spatial planning needed for collaborative learning were absent or undeveloped. All studied municipalities experienced challenges in coordinating complex issues regarding long-term planning to steer territorial development and help to solve conflicts among competing interests. Stakeholder participation was identified as a basic condition for social learning in planning. Together with stakeholders we identified the causal structure behind stakeholder participation in municipal planning processes, including main drivers and feedback loops. We conclude that there is a need for arenas allowing and promoting stakeholder activity, participation and inclusion that combines both bottom-up and top-down approaches, and where evidence-based collaborative learning can occur.     

从土地利用规划到国土空间规划 ——科学理性规划的视角

研究目的:深入探讨从土地利用规划到国土空间规划的重大变革,明晰国土空间规划的观念、体系、任务、方法和实施要求,以期对正在开展的国土空间规划编制工作提供参考。研究方法:文献研究法和比较分析法。研究结果:国土空间规划要着力强化可持续发展、高质量发展、以人民为中心的发展观念,在规划体系建设中处理好空间规划与发展规划,国家规划与地方规划,总体规划与专项规划、详细规划之间的关系,把重塑国土空间开发保护格局和推动自然资源节约集约利用和自然资源资产保值增值同时作为新时代规划的主要任务,全面推进空间规划基本理论、基础性方法和前沿性方法研究,创新规划实施的行政、法治、经济、社会和技术机制。研究结论:国土空间规划作为空间规划体制改革的产物,既要继承包括土地利用规划在内的原有空间规划的优点,也要注意克服其不足,根据国土空间治理现代化的战略需要,在规划观念、规划体系、规划实施等方面进行全方位、重构性变革,发展具有中国特色的空间规划理论和方法。     

国土空间规划的现代法治：良法与善治

研究目的:立足国土空间治理体系和治理能力现代化的目标,探索国土空间规划法治化的基本内涵、总体思路与逻辑框架,为国土空间规划现代法治的研究和实施提供参考。研究方法:文献研究法,综合分析法。研究结果:(1)国土空间规划法治化的本质就是国土空间规划的"良法"和"善治",应当遵循"良"的价值理念与"法"的完整体系、"善"的思维意识与"治"的秩序机制的总体思路来构建国土空间规划法治化框架;(2)国土空间规划治理的"良法"体系包括规划法律法规体系、地方法规规章体系、技术标准体系和规划成果体系,"善治"平台则包括规划编制审批、规划实施监督、规划信息平台和规划工作平台。研究结论:构建国土空间规划法治化的逻辑框架,提出完善和健全规划治理体系的具体路径,有助于对国土空间规划的现代法治进行顶层设计,以及推进国土空间规划法治体系与治理能力的现代化。     

Ecosystem-based adaptation in cities: An analysis of European urban climate adaptation plans

Ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA) measures have been increasingly promoted in the literature, as well as in policies and practices, for their environmental and socio-economic co-benefits. The recent scientific literature has shown a growing interest to assess climate adaptation plans at the urban level, in recognition of the important role played by urban areas in addressing climate change challenges. However, little information is available on the combination of these two issues, i.e., the actual inclusion of EbA measures in climate adaptation plans at the urban level. This paper addresses this gap by developing a framework to analyze the treatment of EbA in urban level climate planning, and apply it to a sample of climate adaptation plans in Europe. The framework consists of a classification of EbA measures, and a scoring system to evaluate how well they are reflected in different components of the plans. The results suggest that there is in general good awareness in plans of EbA measures, and of their potential role in addressing climate change challenges. However, their treatment in climate adaptation plans at the urban level often lacks sufficient baseline information, as well as convincing implementation actions. The paper concludes by offering recommendations to improve future practice, in terms of enhancing the baseline information to improve the proposal and design of EbA measures, improving the treatment of co-benefits associated to EbA measures, and strengthening coordination with other planning tools. Possible future development of this works include the integration of the proposed EbA classification, and the analysis of a larger sample of territorial plans.     

Planning consistency and implementation in urbanizing China: Comparing urban and land use plans in suburban Beijing

The evaluation of the extent to which urban and land use planning have achieved their objectives is crucial to better management of urban land development. China’s urban and land use plans have the common purpose of controlling urban sprawl. This research aimed at comparatively assessing the consistency and implementation of these plans, considering the Changping District in suburban Beijing as a case study. Three main findings were obtained: (1) each plan used different strategies to control new developments, and there were several quantitative and spatial conflicts between the two plans; (2) neither plan has been well implemented or effective in controlling urban sprawl, despite the slightly better performance of the land use plan; (3) core-periphery decreasing trends were revealed in land quota allocation and effectiveness of planning implementation. Remote regular towns received the least land resources from the top-down planning system but also developed fast, mainly through informal and illegal approaches. Further investigation into the double failure of China’s current spatial planning system in quantitative and spatial control over urban land development requires a deeper integration of various spatial management systems, a fundamental transformation of planning philosophy, and a higher respect for peripheral areas in urban-rural integration. The planning assessment approach and reform recommendations developed on the basis of the Chinese practice are probably referable for other developing countries facing similar processes of rapid urbanization and imperfect spatial management.     

乡村振兴背景下村域尺度国土空间规划：认知、职能与构建

研究目的:在乡村振兴背景下,以国土空间规划体系重构为契机,科学认知村域尺度国土空间规划内涵,明确其基本职能,并提出构建路径。研究方法:文献研究法,综合分析法。研究结果:当前乡村面临转型,而村域规划存在理论认知不深入、技术支撑不足、实施管理困难等问题,新时期村域国土空间规划应依据外部社会背景及村庄内在条件,在全面认知乡村价值前提下,通过空间资源要素配置与用途管制来干预乡村空间重构并服务于乡村治理。研究结论:乡村振兴背景下村域国土空间规划应当具备指明乡村振兴路径、强化乡村空间治理、行使自然资源监管、尊重多元价值诉求等基本职能,并基于问题、需求、目标、行动四维导向进行构建。     

Evaluating the effectiveness of land use master plans in built-up land management: A case study of the Jinan Municipality,eastern China

China has implemented land use master plans to strictly control built-up land usage. The effective evaluation of land use master plan on controlling construction land is the premise of monitoring and early warning of planning implementation. It is also the basis for planning revision and further implementation of territorial spatial planning. In this study, we established a comprehensive index system based on three aspects: scale management, annual growth rhythm control, and spatial layout. We then analyzed the consistency between the actual situation for built-up land and the previous land use master plan of the Jinan Municipality in the Shandong Province of eastern China. The results showed that the master plan effectively controlled the scale of built-up land sprawl, such that the annual growth rhythm control level periodically increased over time. They also indicated the low efficiency of the built-up land spatial layout control. Overall, the previous land use master plan in Jinan had notable impacts. We recommend that land policy makers should adjust control standards and implementation intensity for spatial planning in the future to achieve scientific and effective planning for the management of construction land.     

Coastal areas and climate change: A decision support tool for implementing adaptation measures

Climate change will be one of the main global challenges in the future. In this context cities play a key role. If, on the one hand, cities cause climate change, on the other hand, they are the places where climate change impacts are most evident, as it deeply affects the quality of life of its inhabitants. Climate change impacts are particularly relevant for coastal areas. These are characterized by a higher concentration of buildings and people in comparison to inland areas. In particular, one of the forecasted effects of climate change in these areas is the increase in coastal flooding due to rising sea levels and storm surges. The implementation of strategies and actions for the adaptation of urban areas to the impacts of coastal flooding is essential to ensure the liveability of coastal communities. Urban planning plays a key role in cities’ adaptation. However, even though the interest in this topic has been increasing, operative support and tools for planning urban adaptation in cities are in short supply, especially in coastal cities. In light of this, it has become necessary to focus on the definition of new tools responding to the needs of urban planning.Based on these observations, this paper, starting from the existing literature on coastal vulnerability indices, has developed a new index: the Coastal Resilience Index (CoRI). Thanks to the CoRI and to the use of technological innovations applied to urban planning (in particular, Geographic Information Systems), a decision support tool has been developed to identify adaptation measures aiming to reduce the impacts of coastal flooding, caused by rising sea levels and storm surges.     

中国国土空间用途管制的基础性问题思考

研究目的:明确国土空间用途管制的科学内涵,讨论新时代统一国土空间用途管制体系的基础性问题。研究方法:理论分析法和归纳演绎法。研究结果:(1)国土空间用途管制的对象是一个空间、属性与行为三位一体的复杂系统,管制实施中需协调好实体空间、功能空间与管理空间的关系。同时,异质性、动态性与尺度性等主要空间属性影响着管制实践的效率。(2)新时代国土空间用途管制完善了用途管制理念方法,但实践的滞后性引发了系统治理思维与分区分类管控的矛盾,空间尺度性与事权划分不匹配,管制手段中审批与许可关系不清等问题。(3)机构改革为自然资源统一管理带来机遇,但管制主体的职能界限模糊与"上下不对齐"的治理结构设置也带来了新的挑战。研究结论:国土空间用途管制在国家现代化治理体系中发挥着举足轻重的作用,内容体系逐渐完善,但基础理论认知和管制实施的矛盾仍旧突出,需要在今后的实践中不断改进。     

信息化背景下国土空间规划刚性与弹性协同路径研究

研究目的：基于信息技术在审视国土空间规划执行效果、推演空间政策实施后影响、权衡空间规则兼容性中的作用,搭建国土空间规划刚性与弹性协同路径,为解决空间利用的效率提升、关联要素的关系协调、利益主体间包容性规则构建问题提供参考。研究方法：文献资料法和对比法。研究结果：国土空间规划全领域、全过程中涉及的刚性和弹性具有相辅相成的关系,信息化技术为实现两者的协同提供了精确的数据支撑和高效的量化手段;统筹国土空间规划的刚性与弹性,需要在空间大数据驱动下,精准评估并动态调整国土空间规划要素空间格局。研究结论：国土空间规划的刚性与弹性协同,需要通过集成多源时空数据监测与动态调节国土空间利用效率、利用情景模拟技术梳理与系统衔接国土空间多重关系、建构信息共享接口协调与兼容联动国土空间多元功能三条信息化实现路径实现,以保障国土空间规划的权威性、适应性及连续性。     

Land betterment capture revisited: A methodology for territorial plans

The main goal of this article consists in the proposal of a developer obligations’ instrument aimed at capturing land betterments that result from planning decisions and from the implementation of territorial plans, reassigning them to public infrastructure, equipment and social purposes. It consists in charging for extra development rights beyond average municipal urban built-up areas. It is founded on a research and consultancy work for the Portuguese Territory Department (a governmental organism) within the scope of the revision of the Land Planning Act and complementary legislation, namely the new Juridical Regime of Urbanization and Edification, and the new Juridical Regime of Territorial Management Instruments. Thus herein are presented the assumptions, methodology, outcomes and conclusions of this work.It is applied − as a case study − to the Detail Plan of Avenue Pope John XXIII, in Fátima (in the Municipality of Ourém, Portugal), but its application is generalizable to other municipalities, and it potentially strengthens their financial status.Considering the current widespread crisis, and taking advantage from the experience of homologous value capture instruments in other countries, the proposed instrument is intended to contribute to strengthen municipal finance. It faces more clearly and objectively the funding of territorial planning and urban development. It further aims at developing understandable, quantifiable and user-friendly decision-support instruments, and at reassigning the betterments engendered by public planning decisions on behalf of communities.This concept and methodology supports the consolidation of the objectives of the new Portuguese Land and Planning Act. It indeed fosters the integration of territorial policies, strengthens effectiveness in plan execution, supports the economic and financial sustainability of urban development operations, and promotes equity as well as social and territorial cohesion.     

国土空间规划的立法统合及其表达

研究目的：通过梳理国土空间规划立法的不同类型,比较和分析适合中国现阶段发展需要和制度基础的国土空间规划立法统合模式,为研究制定国土空间开发保护的总体性法律探索可行进路。研究方法：规范分析法、文献分析法。研究结果：国土空间规划的体系化、法治化和制度化离不开立法统合,但是现行国土空间规划分散立法模式存在现实局限性,无法回应“国土空间开发保护总体性法律”这一根本要求。结合中国国土空间规划发展的阶段性和既有立法的制度基础,适度法典化是目前国土空间规划立法统合更为合适的路径选择。研究结论：（1）在制度特征上,寻求开放性与封闭性、稳定性与回应性、调适性与渐进性的适度均衡;（2）在立法形式上,初期阶段通过制定《国土空间规划法》凝练共识规则和一般原则,在法典化时升级为《国土空间规划基本法》;（3）在体系衔接上,合理衔接与宪法以及其他部门法之间的关系,形成科学的体系划分。     

Losing faith in planning

Israeli planning is at a crossroad, and not for the first time. As the housing crisis is coupled with a traffic and transportation catastrophe, the planning system is desperate to create new tools and invent new procedures for speeding up plan- and decision-making. A deep look at the performance of planning in Israel reveals that the abundance of short-cuts, circumventions and detours are actually a reflection of the loss of faith in the essence of planning. Particularly, when taking into account two major setbacks: the complete lack of agreeable (spatial) planning principles at all levels of planning, and the congruence between planning institutions and other governmental bodies. These flaws, stemming from the modernist origins of Israeli Planning, continuously erode the practice of planning. Planning institutions are therefore the first to ignore, cancel and evade approved plans and declared policies, which affects other governmental authorities. The result is the practical abandonment of the belief in planning's ability to bring about positive change and a dangerously weakened planning system.     

The River agreement in Italy. Resilient planning for the co-evolution of communities and landscapes

According to the “evolutionary” approach (Davoudi & Al., 2012), urban resilience implies that urban systems have capacity to react to several external disturbances - economic, social, environmental - regarding all components of urban governance and transforming itself in a new development model.River basins are considered an interesting space for experimental workshop on resilience, as a driver of territorial policy, for ordinary communities and landscapes, where the relationship between the sustainable use of territorial resources could led to new territorial strategies, as well as “promote managements synergies” at different levels of regional and local planning.River Agreements (RA) appear as an innovative governance method which can help in the drafting of potential plans and practices for the development of resilience in fluvial territories. It is a form of negotiated planning, that helps to involve social actors in order to: improve people’s knowledge of current territorial conditions and the effects of human activities; increase social awareness; include society in the identification and implementation of solutions; to encourage innovative changes in planning objectives and urban and architectural design, starting with the legal and planning framework of an Action Plan. Starting from the ‘80 s, RA were experimentally tested in Belgium and France and currently widespread also in Italy. In Piedmont Region (Italy), it is recognized as a successful territorial governance tool used to define shared strategies, measures, rules and projects. We will present the case study of the Sangone River Agreement as the first participate planning and design experience in Piedmont signed by local actors.     

Assessment of regulation of legal relations of territorial planning: A case study in Lithuania

Land management is inevitably linked to the regulation of activities of its proprietor or operator stipulated by legislation and documents of territorial planning. In Lithuania, as in many European countries, territorial planning is a key measure for the formation of landscape and the alteration of its elements. With the help of territorial planning documents, governing authorities has the opportunity to orderly regulate the layout of long-term stable elements of landscape and the sustainable territorial development. However, in comparison with other European Union (hereinafter – EU) countries, territorial planning system valid in Lithuania until January 1, 2014 is still “young” and having specific features with former countries of the Soviet bloc legal regulation. The system did not provided a consistent and sustainable territorial development mechanism: there was the lack of measures allowing to manage the development processes of residential areas and implementation of territorial planning documents (especially the municipal master plans) solutions for the creation of a harmonious functional spatial system. The aim of the present paper is to assess the regulation of legal relations of territorial planning in Lithuania and the EU member states. The assessment summarizes processes of the formation of a landscape during the territorial planning, introduces new opportunities to more accurately predict the results of the current process of landscape planning, and highlights legal and sustainable elements of territorial planning system optimization. As can be seen from the assessment carried out, one of the most important territorial planning objectives was and still remains the balance of mutual relations (hierarchy of plans) of territorial planning documents in shaping the cultural landscape to ensure the rational distribution of the land fund, combining a variety of activities as well as often different land users’ and public interests. Therefore, the implementation of the territorial planning reform of Lithuania capacitates for the transition to an integrated territorial planning, ensuring sustainable development.     

基于多源数据的国土空间高质量利用评价思路

研究目的：新时代国土空间规划背景下，提出利用多源数据评价国土空间高质量利用的思路，为辅助编制高质量的国土空间规划提供支撑。研究方法：文献分析法、归纳演绎法。研究结果：在国土空间规划新趋势下，以国土空间高质量利用内涵为引导，提出生态空间、农业空间和城镇空间的高质量利用目标与评价维度，并构建了基于多源数据的国土空间高质量利用的评价方法框架。研究结论：国土空间高质量利用评价应在统筹各类空间不同目标间关系的基础上，结合研究和实践需要，因地制宜进行评价，进而形成各空间的发展合力，推进国土空间的高质量利用。     

Managing complexity of urban systems: A polycentric approach

The concept of polycentrism and territorial governance has been broadly discussed in spatial planning, as well as in governance communities. Polycentric urban development in the EU has brought a high concentration of both economic activities and population to urban spaces, efficient functional divisions between settlements, relatively territorially homogenous accessibility of services and working places for the population, as well as strong urban system interdependences. This has led to the growing vulnerability of urban systems to external shocks (natural and human), which whilst often appearing locally in fact affect whole systems. The combination of spatial–territorial polycentricism and multilevel polycentric governance concepts aims to address the challenges of managing external shocks, providing an adaptive and robust framework for the long-term sustainability of urban systems. Evidence from Transnational Municipal Networks demonstrates the potential of combine polycentricism to address the complexity of decision-making and fuzziness in the spatial development and create a new quality of spatial organization in a knowledge-based society.     

日本国土空间用途管制经验与启示

研究目的:系统梳理日本国土空间的用途类型以及管制措施,为中国国土空间的用途管制提供经验借鉴。研究方法:文献分析法和综合分析法。研究结果:(1)日本国土空间规划与法律体系具有权威性,为国土空间用途管制提供了立法支撑与制度保障;(2)日本国土空间用途管制各部门、各层级职权清晰,能够统一协调国土空间用途管制工作;(3)日本尊重国土空间使用类型的多样性,实施刚柔结合的用途管制制度;(4)日本重视国土空间规划监督管理,保证了规划的实施效力;(5)日本重视国土空间的系统性,保障用途管制的整体性。研究结论:日本的国土空间用途管制经验对中国有所启示,主要包括加强国土空间用途管制立法、完善国土空间规划协调机制、确立常态化的多维国土空间用途管制监管体系、构建刚柔结合的国土空间用途管制格局、提升国土空间管制体系的完整性和系统性等。     

2023年土地科学研究重点进展评述及2024年展望——土地资源利用与空间规划分报告

研究目的：总结2023年国内外土地资源利用与空间规划领域研究进展,展望2024年国内研究趋势。研究方法：文献调查法。研究结果：2023年国内研究主要集中于土地资源配置的影响与优化、土地资源的生态系统服务价值、绿色低碳土地利用模式、土地利用效益评价、国土空间规划方法、国土空间规划管理和保障制度等方面;国外研究侧重于多类型资源协同配置、土地资源保护效果与路径、土地利用变化的生态效应、土地利用功能评价、可持续的空间规划方法、空间规划管理制度与方法等方面。研究结论：2023年土地资源利用与空间规划领域在土地资源优化配置、生态系统服务价值权衡关系、土地资源保护、绿色低碳土地利用、土地利用评价方法与相关机制、空间规划方法与管理保障等方面取得了一定进展。2024年将重点关注土地资源同其他资源的协同机制、土地利用评价方法、土地绿色利用效率影响机制、土地低碳绿色利用模式、服务中国式现代化与高质量发展的国土空间治理与规划等研究方向。     

日韩国土规划新进展及对我国国土规划的启示

无论是日本的第六次国土规划修订,还是韩国的第四次国土规划修订,都有依法编制和实施动态性的国土规划、促进均衡国土和开放国土的建立、注重增强地方自主发展能力建设、强调规划编制过程中的公众参与等方面的特点。我国的国土规划应借鉴日、韩两国的作法,加强前期研究,推动国土规划立法;建立协调统一的国土规划体系,协调相关规划关系;开展以构建国土空间格局为主体的国土规划研究和编制工作,促进可持续发展;加强规划实施中经济手段的运用,协调政府与市场、中央与地方的关系。