Determinants of Indonesian rural secondary school enrolment: gender,neighbourhood and school characteristics

In recent years the school enrolment rates of children aged 13–15 and 16–18 years have increased sharply in Indonesia, not only in urban but also in rural areas. Using various data sets spanning the years from 1993 to 2007, this paper investigates changes in factors associated with the enrolment of secondary school aged children in rural areas. It sheds light on the roles of gender and of neighbourhood and school characteristics, which have rarely been examined in the Indonesian context. The study finds that the disappearance of a gender gap in secondary enrolments between 1993 and 2007 contributed significantly to the rise in the overall enrolment rate. The findings also show that children living in wealthier communities and communities with a high proportion of enrolled children are more likely to attend school. Finally, various school characteristics are shown not to be strongly or consistently correlated with school enrolment.     

Rural–urban differences in parental spending on children's primary education in Malawi

Using Malawian data, this paper answers two interrelated questions: are there rural–urban differences in the factors that influence the probability that a household spends or does not spend on own children's education; and are there rural–urban differences in the factors that affect educational expenditure if a household decides to spend? Computed elasticities indicate that spending on education by rural households is more sensitive to changes in income compared with urban households, suggesting that spending on education in rural areas is a luxury good. In both areas, a mother's employment and education has a larger impact on spending compared with those of a father. Urban households compared with their rural counterparts are more sensitive to the quality of access to primary schools. We find no evidence of gender bias in school spending in urban areas, but rural households exhibit bias in favour of boys.     

Wind energy potential in Maputaland

This study examines the feasibility of harnessing wind energy to better the lives of rural people in an area of KwaZulu Natal which is remote from the national electricity grid. Using WASP, a computer program which is able to extrapolate data on wind speed and calculate potential energy, wind simulations were performed for 12 sites in the area. All these sites are near schools or clinics, and none is further than 60 kilometres from the coast. The simulations indicate that wind is a viable and efficient energy source to supplement the conventional coal‐generated electricity in Maputaland, particularly in the flat, smooth coastal areas.     

The basic needs approach to development: The question of health care for black people in Natal 1

Health care is an important facet of the basic needs approach. Health care for black people in Natal is fragmented both with regard to the responsible authority (Department of National Health and Population Development, Natal Provincial Administration, Development Services Board, local authorities and welfare clinics) and spatially (since there is an overlap with KwaZulu health services). Access to health facilities (permanent and mobile), although adequate in some areas, is insufficient in others: the deficiency is most marked in rural areas and with regard to permanent health facilities. Crucial statistical data pertaining to health status are inadequate partly because of the aforementioned fragmentation and partly because they are collected for administrative rather than monitoring purposes. Questions are posed regarding future access to health care in the light of the new constitutional dispensation, privatisation and the inadequate attention being given to primary health care.     

The Legacy of Serrano: The Impact of Mandated Equal Spending on Private School Enrollment

In Tiebout's idealized world, families would sort into homogeneous communities. Each family would get its preferred quality of public schools and there would be no demand for private schools. But limited public school options and a demand for religious instruction not permitted in public schools create a market for private schooling. Recently, many state governments have greatly limited districts' freedom to spend what they wish on education, often in response to court rulings to equalize education spending, such as Serrano in California. Funding equalization also affects the level of public school spending in the average state district; if this rises, as it has in many states, private schools become less attractive. Examining private school enrollment in 159 metropolitan areas in 1970, 1980, and 1990, we find that private school enrollments fall as average public spending rises and increase as public spending becomes more equal.     

The academic effectiveness of a bridging year for commerce undergraduates

Human resources development in South Africa is constrained by the underpreparedness of many students for university. The problem is particularly acute among school leavers for whom English is not their first language and who are thereby at a disadvantage in an English language university. In order to address the problem, which goes beyond language, bridging curricula have been devised. This research analyses how effective one such intervention is, in terms of an academic achievement outcome.

Decisions to allocate resources to bridging intervention need the assurance that the resources are used effectively. An ex post facto experimental research design ts used in this study to test the learning outcome of the PBS bridging intervention. The analysis assesses whether the PBS programme increases the academic achievement of students at first‐year level.

The examination results achieved by an experimental group of PBS students who matriculated from DET schools are compared with the results of a control group of DET matriculants. The research shows that the academic achievements of the PBS group during the bridging year were superior to those of the control group. Furthermore, superior performance was sustained by the PBS students after they Joined the mainstream BCom curriculum. After the bridging intervention, the PBS students achieved 7.7 percentage points better in Business Economics I examinations than the control group. The research design controls for demonstrated academic ability at school At a 0.01 level of statistical significance, the results of the analysis indicate that the PBS intervention has contributed positively to the students’ academic achievement.     

Constructing migration: Infrastructure,poverty and development in KwaZulu‐Natal

Migration and population movement are probably the most neglected of the significant dynamics behind rural poverty in South Africa. Little is known about how people move from place to place, and much of what we thought we knew may be incorrect. In KwaZulu‐Natal job search is no longer the single dominating reason given for migration. Instead, infrastructure ties with it for first place today, with land close behind. The first article in this two‐part report notes that as many as two thirds of the province's disadvantaged families have broken away from their communities of origin and moved at least once during their lifetimes. Perhaps three million have migrated in the last fifteen years. A second unexpected finding is the predominance of rural‐to‐rural migration. Three quarters of all moves recorded were rural to rural, with many orientated towards advantaged rural areas around small towns and secondary cities. Results show how streams are channelled towards poverty or opportunity, and argue for a review of prevailing concepts of rural‐urban relations which structure delivery efforts. The second article, to follow later, notes that recorded income levels are now higher in some rural destination areas than in the urban shack communities that accommodate rural‐to‐urban migrants. Results of various studies presented show how access to information affects migration patterns, and the article also explores the role of infrastructure as a determining force in the regional distribution of population and as a factor in people's own bootstrap anti‐poverty efforts.     

Une modélisation des déterminants des décisions de scolarisation primaire des ménages au Sénégal

Abstract: This study describes enrolment rates and constructs an econometric model for primary education demand in Senegal, relying on the results of the QUID survey realized in 2001. A sequential probit model is constructed to explain the different choices made by the households in relation to their children's education, namely: decision to enrol or not, choice of the type of school (public or private schools, if private, religious or secular schools), decision to allow the children to attain the last grade or not. A dozen of explanatory variables relating to children and households’ characteristics and availability of education supply, are retained in this model. Simulations based on the model estimation results show the discrimination endured by rural children compared to urban ones whatever their gender, and by girls relative to boys, in terms of the probability distribution of the dependant variable of the model.     

Urbanisation and urban management in KwaZulu Natal

Urbanisation and population movements in KwaZulu Natal from 1980 to 1991 and their implications for urban management are examined. People moved out of Natal rural areas and most small towns and into urban and rural KwaZulu areas. The most rapid growth has been in the Durban Functional Region, especially its KwaZulu districts. There has been movement into KwaZulu rural areas, both around urban centres and in outlying areas. A number of the larger towns have experienced population in‐migration even where employment and growth in output have been static or have declined. These trends raise questions about the explanatory value of urban transition models and suggest rather more complex patterns of movement.     

The health of left-behind children in rural China

Child health is not only a key indicator of overall quality of public health, but also vital for the future economic development of a country. In recent years, with unprecedented urbanization of China, many children in rural areas have been left behind while their parents migrate to urban areas to seek employment opportunities. Thus, it is considerably important for us to understand the effects of lack of parental care on the health status of left-behind children. Using data from China Health and Nutrition Survey (CHNS), we find that the left-behind children in rural areas are significantly 20.0% more likely to get sick or develop chronic conditions than those living with their parents. We also find that girls are more vulnerable than boys and younger children are more vulnerable than older children to lack of parental care.     

Migrate for education: An unintended effect of school district combination in rural China

A large number of village primary schools in rural China were closed since the 1990s. This paper studies the impact of the reduction in the number of primary schools on the migration decision of rural residents. First, using China Health and Nutrition Survey that contains information on community characteristics, we find that both the disappearance of village primary school and the increased distance to nearby primary school increased the migration probability of village residents. Second, using the 1% population survey in 2005 and prefecture level information, we find that the decline in the number of primary schools between 2000 and 2004 increased the migration probability of rural residents. Exploring the heterogeneous effects, we find that the migration of individuals with primary-school-age children is more sensitive to the relocation of primary schools, and that the effect is stronger for families with boys than those with girls. These results suggest that human capital investment motive and regional education policy play an important role in China's urbanization process.     

The Contribution of the School Environment to the Overall Food Environment Experienced by Children

Despite the important role of schools in the food environment faced by children, most research examining access to healthy food has focused on the retail sector. We create a database of school menus and the nutritional information about each item on the menu from nearly all school districts in the United States to examine the influence of the school‐based food environment on the nutritional choices of children. Using the National Household Food Acquisition and Purchase Survey (FoodAPS), we find that, holding constant the neighborhood retail food environment, exposure to healthier meals at school increases the healthfulness of foods acquired by children throughout the day.     

Conservation of natural resources and rural development: The work of the Institute of Natural Resources

The concept of the Institute of Natural Resources, attached to the University of Natal but funded largely by the private sector, is the only one of its kind in Africa. Its services are seen as being vitally important and urgently needed. Through its endeavours greater awareness has been created that the African rural areas require urgent rehabilitation and development.

Through its various research programmes and practical rural development projects, the Institute is involved in land capability analysis in various parts of KwaZulu, and in formulating sustainable land use strategies which emphasize job creation and food production while conserving natural resources and reclaiming those areas in danger of ecological collapse.

In conjunction with this research and practical work, attention is being given to the establishment of a computer‐based geographic information system, promotion of public awareness of the socio‐economic and environmental problems facing Natal/KwaZulu, and assistance with the co‐ordination of planning in the region.     

‘Undercultivation’ and intensification in the Transkei: a case study of historical changes in the use of arable land in Nompa,Shixini

The large areas of abandoned arable fields in the communal areas of the Eastern Cape and KwaZulu‐Natal are often interpreted as evidence that rural people are no longer interested in farming and largely rely on off‐farm sources of income for their survival. However, this case study of land‐use practices in one village shows that farmers in the Transkeian coastal belt have not abandoned cultivation, but have shifted from the extensive cultivation of maize in distant fields to the intensive intercropping of maize and other food crops in fenced gardens adjacent to homesteads. Studies of yields from fields and gardens indicate that this has been an effective intensification strategy adopted by rural households to maintain yields in the face of shrinking resources and increasing risks. Evidence of changing land‐use practices is presented and the reasons for these changes identified and evaluated.     

Timing is Everything: The Impact of School Lunch Length on Children's Body Weight

The large number of overweight children in the United States has prompted school administrators and policy makers to identify practices in schools that contribute to unhealthy weight outcomes for children and develop strategies to prevent further increases. Advocates for school nutrition reform have suggested that it is important for children to have an adequate amount of time to eat meals in school in order to maintain a healthy weight. This article examines whether the length of time children are given to eat lunch in school has an impact on their weight. I find evidence that an increase in lunch length reduces the probability a child is overweight, and this finding is robust across various econometric specifications, including a two‐sample instrumental variable model and difference‐in‐differences model that account for the potential endogeneity of lunch length.     

农村留守儿童教育问题：原因与对策

随着农村留守儿童群体规模的不断扩大,留守儿童的教育问题日益突出。农村留守儿童教育问题的产生既有社会因素,也有学校和家庭因素。解决农村留守儿童教育问题,必须明确政府职责,调动社会力量,变革教育机制,强化家庭观念。     

School attendance and economic shocks: Evidence from rural Zimbabwe

Unpredicted shocks such as weather, pests or price changes affect agricultural households negatively or positively. The shocks have two opposite effects (income and substitution) on parents’ investments in the human capital of their children, and it is not predictable from theory whether the income effect or the substitution effect of a shock has a greater impact on the investments. Therefore, it is unknown whether human capital investments (i.e. sending children to school rather than having them work) are procyclical or countercyclical. In this paper we show how hyperinflation may affect investments in the education of children by their parents using three data-sets from Zimbabwe. We find that human capital investments are countercyclical (the substitution effect dominates) in rural areas of Zimbabwe during a shock. Therefore, policymakers in Zimbabwe need to be worried about decreased schooling of children during positive shocks in the rural areas.     

Solution or isolation: Is boarding school a good solution for left-behind children in rural China?

In recent decades, rural China has experienced a rapid increase in boarding school enrollment rates and in the population of left-behind children (LBC) (i.e., rural children whose parents migrate to urban areas for work). LBC tend to be worse off in numerous dimensions. At 61 million, China has the world's largest population of LBC. As it provides a different residential environment, boarding school can potentially exacerbate or mitigate the negative effects of parental migration. Using nationally representative data on Chinese families, we estimate the impact of parental migration and boarding school on child outcomes in cognition and physical and mental health. We find that while boarding school has no effect on LBC physical and mental health, it substantially improves performance on achievement tests for both LBC and non-LBC. Policies aimed at improving boarding school conditions in China, may improve not only cognitive outcomes, but also child physical and mental well-being.     

Women and empowerment through the ‘economy of affection’ in KwaZulu‐Natal: Its significance for sustainable development

This article is an attempt to demonstrate how, in the absence of infrastructural requirements for development in the rural areas, the interpersonal relationships of women articulated through their households, kinship networks and community structures serve as indispensable mechanisms for their survival. These mechanisms are seen as part of an indigenous socio‐economic framework that is referred to here as the ‘economy of affection’. This framework is presented, through ethnographic data, as a means of facilitating moral, social and economic support among the indigent rural people in KwaZulu‐Natal. Taking cognisance of local organisational forms and resources is the best possible way to reconstruct South Africa's vast hinterland against the background of a history of development patterns, where rhetoric has played a more important role than actual substantive contributions to development of the rural poor, and where capital investments, technology and expertise of a post‐industrial nature are unlikely to spread.     

Effect of Parental Migration on the Academic Performance of Left‐behind Middle School Students in Rural China

China's rapid development and urbanization over the past 30 years have caused large numbers of rural residents to migrate to urban areas in search of work. This has created a generation of children who remain behind in rural areas when their parents migrate for work. Previous research has found mixed impacts of parental migration on the educational achievement of left‐behind children (LBC), perhaps because of methodological deficiencies and lack of recognition of the heterogeneity of this population of children. Our study attempts to examine the impact of six types of parental migration on the academic achievement of a rural junior high school sample. Our study uses a panel of 7148 junior high school students to implement a difference‐in‐difference analysis and finds that parental migration has a negative and significant impact on the academic achievement of junior high school students. Our study suggests that the Chinese Government should implement measures to dismantle barriers to the human capital accumulation of LBC to ensure sustainable economic growth and human capital development in China.