New environmental policy instruments to realize forest expansion in Flanders (northern Belgium): A base for smart regulation?

This paper evaluates the current instrument mix, designs options for smart regulation and estimates the support base of new instruments for the forest expansion policy in Flanders (northern Belgium). The framework applied is a combination of theories on instrument choice (ICT), policy transfer and legitimacy. The ICT points out that there is a need for new environmental policy instruments (NEPI) oriented to private actors that inform them or create win–win situations for all involved parties. The need is especially high for farmers, who are key actors. The policy transfer analysis suggested instruments currently in use in the Netherlands, England and Denmark that can fulfill these needs. However, the acceptability – or legitimacy – of the suggested instruments in Flanders is only high for three of these, notably the carbon fund, flexible grant scheme and expert advice (especially by forest groups). This largely fills some smart regulation gaps, like the need for information (expert advice), the involvement of other institutional actors (certifiers, forest groups) and the higher involvement of the private sector (all). However, some gaps, such as flexible land purchase through cooperation with real estate agents or other private agents and opportunities for win–win outcomes with farmers, remain. Thus, it is not possible to fully optimize the instrument mix in accordance with the smart regulation requirements in Flanders’ forest expansion policy at this moment. However, as continuity or incremental change is characteristic of most public policy, this does not mean that the suggested changes will be impossible in the near future, especially with the changing character of the rural space.     

基于政策工具视角的多主体绿色施肥行为决策研究

[目的]为加快推进化肥减量增效,探索政府应用信息传递型、激励型及控制型3类政策工具对农户及农业社会化服务组织绿色施肥行为的动态影响机制,为构建高效施肥调控政策体系提供理论支撑。[方法]文章基于演化博弈理论,以黑龙江省为例,应用matlab2016b软件进行数值仿真分析,以得出不同水平政策工具组合下农户与农业社会化服务组织绿色施肥策略变动过程。[结果]（1）政府、农户及农业社会化服务组织在推进化肥减量增效方面存在动态博弈关系,科学合理地制定施肥调控政策是协调三方利益冲突的关键。（2） 3类政策工具中,高水平的信息传递型工具对各主体绿色施肥行为的刺激效果最佳,而组合应用信息传递型与激励型工具对主体行为的推动作用更稳定,同时应用3类工具则更能全面构建起化肥减量增效的良性循环。[结论]政府应重视农户及农业社会化服务组织在推进化肥减量增效方面的主体作用,及时开展施肥调控工作;根据各主体的个体特征与政策需求差异化地制定政策内容,着重应用信息传递型政策工具,必要时与激励型、控制型工具组合应用以获取叠加效应,推行绿色施肥。     

PART TIME FARMING—IMPLICATIONS FOR FARM FAMILY INCOME

The Common Agricultural Policy has been more successful at securing food supplies than at providing adequate incomes for small farmers. Among proposals for resolving the problem, part time farming is a promising option. To date, agricultural policy has at best ignored farms below the ‘full time’ threshold, at worst discriminated against them. The new Agricultural Structures policy embodies a more positive approach, however. Robson's paper calls for better information on farm households with other gainful activities. Statistics from the 1983 Farm Structure Survey provide insight into the nature and extent of part time farming in the European Community. Neglect of part time farming in the UK up to now may have stemmed from its perceived irrelevance for agricultural policy. Now that it is being viewed in a more favourable light, policy makers need to be appraised of the facts. Currently about one third of main agricultural holdings in England and Wales are part time farms in the sense that farmer or spouse combines another paid job with farming. Gasson's paper explores the nature of these other jobs and features of their distribution. Following trends in other developed countries, non-farm activities are becoming increasingly important for UK farming families. Growth in part time farming has obvious implications for income support, widely agreed to be the fundamental objective of agricultural policy in western Europe. Existing farm income measures are not adequate for assessing the extent of the income problem in agriculture. Data from the Inland Revenue's Survey of Personal Incomes and the Wye College part time farming survey fill some of the gaps left in official measurements. Non-farming earnings, pensions and investment income contribute significantly to farm household incomes. A majority of part time farming families in England and Wales make more from other sources than from farming. Although average incomes of part time farmers may exceed those of full timers, Hill's paper identifies a section of part time farming families with inadequate incomes from all sources.     

Mitigation of diffuse water pollution from agriculture in England and China,and the scope for policy transfer

This paper evaluates the existing policy frameworks for mitigation of diffuse water pollution from agriculture (DWPA) in England and China. With reference to a conceptual model of the process of policy transfer or international lesson drawing, and possible constraints to this, it assesses whether and how China can draw lessons to improve current policy from the supra-national and national provisions of the EU and a member state that by 2016 had comprehensively implemented EU agricultural and environmental policy. DWPA is first analysed as a public policy challenge to inform specification of a generic framework for its mitigation. The current policy frameworks for mitigation of DWPA in England and China are evaluated, and their potential for improvement is assessed. A number of barriers to lesson drawing for regulation, incentive payments schemes and advice provision are diagnosed. These barriers are potentially least in relation to advice provision and its use to promote voluntary action by farmers. Given its structure and capabilities the public agricultural extension system in China is also recognised as a key resource. A focus on three policy approaches to mitigate DWPA in China is recommended: i) targeted regulation to a ‘reference level’ of large intensive livestock, and ultimately other large commercial farms; ii) strategic use of incentive payment schemes to protect water resources from DWPA; and iii) re-orientation of the ethos and modalities of operation of the extension system, informed by international lesson drawing, with the aim of rebalancing farm productivity and environmental protection.     

玉米收储制度改革背景下旱作农业区农户杂粮种植意愿影响因素分析——基于内蒙古自治区、辽宁省411个农户的调查数据

[目的]利用内蒙古自治区乌兰察布丰镇市、凉城县、兴和县,辽宁省朝阳市朝阳县411个农户调查数据,分析玉米收储制度改革背景下北方旱作区农户杂粮种植影响因素。[方法]首先对户主个人特征、家庭禀赋两个一般影响因素进行分析,然后重点对自然和社会资源特征、市场环境、政策环境3个影响因素进行分析。[结果](1)由于户主年龄偏大且文化程度较低、户均从事农业生产的劳动力数量和拥有的耕地面积都较少,农户面对玉米市场价格下跌改种其他农作物的能力较弱;(2)尽管农户普遍认同杂粮适合当地自然条件,但是缺乏企业带动,订单种植杂粮的比例较低,农户种植杂粮存在较高的销售风险;(3)虽然农户普遍预期玉米市场价格持平和走低,但是多数农户对杂粮市场价格没有明确预期,杂粮收益存在较高的不确定性;(4)农户普遍不了解玉米收储制度改革的具体内容,且绝大部分农户没有获得杂粮生产支持,不利于引导农户种植杂粮。[结论]应从加强政策宣传、扶持杂粮加工龙头企业、扩大杂粮补贴范围等方面着手,引导北方旱作区农户种植杂粮,减少玉米收储制度改革对其收入的冲击。     

北京市地区畜禽养殖污染总量估算

[目的]随着我国经济的发展,畜禽养殖业发展迅速的同时,日益增加的畜禽粪便排放也带来了生态环境污染问题。北京市由于特殊的经济和政策环境,畜禽产品需求量较大从而畜禽粪便排放量进一步增多,因此必须要加强对于北京畜禽养殖产业污染的防治,为生态环境保护及居民身体健康提供坚实保障。[方法]文章采用随机抽调与实地调研相结合的方式,了解北京市地区主要畜禽养殖情况,进一步使用畜禽养殖主要污染物排放量计算参数估算北京地区畜禽养殖主要污染物排放量。[结果]北京地区多以养殖生猪、牛、肉鸡为主;北京市11个区县产污量较大的3个区依次是顺义区、房山区和平谷区,主要污染物为化学耗氧量和总氮;通过实地调研,发现北京地区畜禽养殖存在以下问题:(1)资金技术欠缺,无法按照要求购买必须的污染防治设备;(2)小型养殖户应对风险能力弱;(3)部分养殖户抱侥幸心理,认为投资污染防治设备没有必要。[结论]加大畜禽养殖污染防治财政补贴力度,鼓励养殖者使用新型排污设备;各个区县主管农业的部门定期组织养殖者进行免费培训;加大扶持力度,促进有机肥市场发展;发挥资金及技术优势,优势互补;引导居民调整饮食结构,倡导健康生活与饮食习惯。     

Push—pull technology: a conservation agriculture approach for integrated management of insect pests,weeds and soil health in Africa

Push—pull technology (www.push-pull.net) is based on a novel cropping system developed by the International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology, Rothamsted Research (UK) and national partners for integrated pest, weed and soil management in cereal—livestock farming systems. Stemborers are attracted to Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum), a trap plant (pull), and are repelled from the main cereal crop using a repellent legume intercrop (push), desmodium (Desmodium spp.). Desmodium root exudates effectively control the parasitic striga weed by causing abortive germination. Desmodium also improves soil fertility through nitrogen fixation, natural mulching, improved biomass and control of erosion. Both companion plants provide high value animal fodder, facilitating milk production and diversifying farmers' income sources. The technology is appropriate to smallholder mixed cropping systems in Africa. It effectively addresses major production constraints, increases maize yields from below 1 to 3.5t/ha, and is economical as it is based on locally available plants, not expensive external inputs. Adopted by over 30,000 farmers to date in East Africa, key factors in its further up-scaling include effective technology dissemination, adaptability of companion plants for climate resilience, capacity building and multi-stakeholder collaboration, integration with livestock husbandry, improvement in input accessibility and creation of a supportive policy framework.     

The introduction of Entry Level Stewardship in England: Extension or dilution in agri-environment policy?

Agri-environment schemes were introduced in the mid-1980s. Their primary objectives have developed from initially aiming to hold back intensification towards stimulating environmental enhancement. The introduction of Entry Level Stewardship (ELS) in England represents a third stage in seeking to extend the coverage of schemes across the majority of agricultural land. This aims to influence land use along the whole of the intensive margin. The ELS offers a wide range of options for which farmers are awarded points. Selection of options equivalent to 30 points per ha in lowland areas entitles farmers to a payment of £30 per ha. By September 2007, 4.4 million ha had been entered into the scheme, equivalent to 47% of the agricultural area. From amongst the options on offer, 34% of points were for boundary options, 20% for intensive grass options, 16% for management plans and 13% for options taking arable land out of production. The choice of options varies across the country with a higher proportion of the agricultural area entered in the East. Entry into the scheme is associated with total agricultural area, cereals farming, larger farms, a lower proportion of area in Environmentally Sensitive Area and Countryside Stewardship schemes and grazing livestock numbers. While the ELS has introduced a large number of new entrants into agri-environment schemes, the extent of the environmental impact is uncertain. Given the large number of options available, it is likely that farmers will have chosen options that involve relatively little change and incur limited cost. At the same time, it would be surprising if the environmental gains were of the types most valued within local areas. The ELS approach implies that public goods provided from agricultural land should be paid for irrespective of what would have happened in the absence of the scheme. While this may be a fairer approach, it may also undermine the idea of land stewardship and imply that payments will continue to be required in the long term in order to sustain provision. The ELS does establish a framework within which incentives could be targeted to deliver specific benefits within particular contexts and suggestions are made as to how policy might be developed for this.     

Farmers’ Preferences For Bluetongue Vaccination Scheme Attributes: An Integrated Choice and Latent Variable Approach

Re‐emergence of the bluetongue disease in Europe poses a continuous threat to European livestock production. Large‐scale vaccination is the most effective intervention to control virus spread. Compared to command‐and‐control approaches, voluntary vaccination approaches can be effective at lower costs, provided that farmers are willing to participate. We use a discrete choice experiment to estimate the preferences for vaccination scheme attributes, accounting for preference heterogeneity via an integrated choice and latent variable approach. In designing livestock disease control schemes, it is often argued that governments should use financial, incentive‐based policy instruments to compensate farmers for externalities, assuming they act in rational self‐interest. Our results suggest that in addition to economic motives, farmers can have intrinsic or social motives to invest in livestock disease control. Implications for the effectiveness of providing subsidy or information to motivate voluntary participation are discussed.     

A participatory framework for conservation payments

This paper describes a participatory framework used in Alta Verapaz, Guatemala to analyze the future viability of different conservation measures in a cloud forest area. It presents how in the case of conservation initiatives, participatory developed instruments could provide the incentive for farmers to reinforce or introduce conservation measures in their farming systems to preserve habitats, reduce species disruptions and alleviate poverty. A model's architecture was created with stakeholders of different settings of the region of study. Together, baseline-scenarios and policy-scenarios on land use and income generation were developed. The paper investigates the potential impacts of different policy measures for conservation and poverty reduction through the instrument “payments for environmental services”. Aim was to integrate social, economic and environmental aspects.     

Agri‐environmental Instruments for an Integrated Rural Policy: An Economic Analysis

The new Rural Development Regulation of the EU reflects the shift of attention within rural areas from agricultural production towards rural development and embraces both farmers and non‐farm residents. While agricultural production is required to comply with environmental standards, rural areas also have to fulfil the growing demand for landscape, outdoor recreation and wildlife conservation. This paper develops a model of a rural area where farmers and non‐farm residents live together. A central government uses a combination of two‐policy instruments ‐ direct compensation payments and public services ‐ aimed at encouraging farmers to adopt environmentally beneficial practices and at the same time to increase the provision of countryside amenities and the sustained vitality of the rural area. The optimal mix of the policy instruments is evaluated under various governmental objectives. The analysis suggests that a combination of direct payments to farmers with the supply of local public services is a promising tool for rural policy development initiatives in the EU.     

Agricultural intensification: food insecurity to income security in a mid-hill watershed of Nepal

A shift from cultivating cereal crops towards vegetables and other cash crops has evolved through the process of agricultural intensification in the hills of the Himalayan region. Agricultural intensification has attracted the attention of researchers in Nepalese agriculture due to its potential impacts on the environment and socio-economic status of farmers. Nevertheless, socio-economic drivers of agricultural intensification are as yet poorly studied in the Himalayan region. Farmers' perceptions of the effects of agricultural intensification on society and the environment are analysed in the Ansikhola watershed of Kavre district, Nepal. Before the onset of agricultural intensification, food sufficiency was the primary measure of the economic condition of farmers. However, in recent years agricultural income and profits have become key socio-economic measures. This study reveals that intensive agricultural practices shifted need-based cereal farming to market-oriented vegetable-based production systems, thereby improving socio-economic conditions for farmers. Positive changes in wealth and social status, migration from rural to urban areas, and shift in social division of labour are other important impacts.     

规模化养猪业的环境风险研究

目的 随着农业现代化步伐的不断加快,农业规模化生产模式已成为一种重要的经营模式被普及和推广。农业规模化经营模式具有高效率、规模效益等特点,但也可能产生一些难以预见的社会问题,如环境污染。从权力—资本的逻辑来看,规模化养殖模式具有更高的经济效益并更利于政府开展环境管理与监督,且在政策扶持与财政资助方面更有针对性,有助于政府从整体上来管控规模化养殖企业。方法 文章通过现场查看、深度访谈等实地调查及比色法水质检测方法来开展研究。结果 研究发现大规模养猪场的畜禽排泄物所造成的环境污染在不断加重,环境风险发生的可能性也在增加。相反各种中小型养殖户、散养户的养殖模式却与地方社会结合得更好,养殖点分布广泛且周边环境的净化能力强,不仅具有较高的经济价值,也较好地保护了周边环境,更具有可行性和操作性。结论 依据不同逻辑形成的养猪模式产生了截然不同的环境效应。养殖规模应基于不同地域、不同的经营方式来设定,形成适度规模的养殖模式。     

The politics of environmental market instruments: Coalition building and knowledge filtering in the regulation of forest certificates trading in Brazil

Market instruments for environmental governance have a foundation in an economic theorythat claims to be universal and atemporal, but their materialization in practice always takes place in specific socioeconomic and political contexts. The Brazilian trade in forest certificates (CRA) is a new market instrument that allows farmers that have deforested illegally prior to 2008 to become compliant by acquiring certificates from other farmers that conserve a forest area beyond legal requirements. Even though the CRA market has been praised as an innovative environmental policy, it is still unclear whether it will be implemented even after more than two decades of political debate, congressional approval of legislation and substantial investments in new supporting systems. This research paper aims to analyze the materialization of this market by reconstructing how policy participants form advocacy coalitions (i.e. environmental protection, market viability and agricultural consolidation) to advance their interests. Our results show that advocacy coalitions filter (i.e. absorb, reject or transform) new ideas, experiences and knowledge in order to influence the regulations for forest certificate trading. In doing so, they often combine positions, form new alliances and merge with other advocacy coalitions in accordance with the interests of their constituents. These fluid allegiances within and between coalitions explain why market materialization remains ambiguous and unlikely to become operational in the near future.     

养殖户质量控制行为选择及其影响因素分析

[目的]良好的质量控制行为是保障农产品质量安全的关键。在计划行为理论框架下,利用河北、山东、江苏3省399份蛋鸡养殖户微观调研数据,研究养殖户质量控制行为选择及其影响因素。[方法]文章采用Ordered Logit模型和Logit模型分别分析各因素对养殖户质量控制行为综合指标和各环节单一指标的影响。[结果]现阶段有91.48%的养殖户已(规范)采取农产品质量控制行为;质量控制集中在生产过程和生产环境两个方面;在质量控制行为综合指标下,政府规制、生产标准、市场激励、风险态度、养殖规模和农户能力对养殖户质量控制行为选择具有显著正向影响;在质量控制行为单一指标下,影响各环节质量控制行为的因素存在差异。[结论]畜禽养殖采取全面质量控制行为是必然趋势,应进一步规范养殖户质量控制行为操作流程,普及农产品质量检测技术,完善农业生产与农产品质量安全政策体系。     

Policy reform and farmers' wheat allocation in rural China: a case study*

Market‐oriented policy reforms often have important effects on farm‐level grain production and utilisation decisions in developing countries. China's grain farmers are of particular interest because of China's importance in world grain markets and because of China's recent major agricultural policy advances and retrenchments. An empirical evaluation of market liberalisation among farmers located in two provinces in China on farm‐level wheat consumption, market sales and on‐farm storage during 1994 is presented. The results indicate that policymakers should account for such changes in farm household behaviour in designing and assessing the consequence of market liberalisation programs for agricultural sectors in developing countries.     

Strategic Role of Trade Credit in Chain Coordination for the Traditional Farm Business Enterprises in Punjab,India

Abstract

Rice being a staple cereal, government purchases paddy (unhusked rice) from the primary wholesale markets in the surplus agrarian Punjab State and milled rice is distributed through the public distribution system in rice deficit States. Commission agents (CAs) in the primary wholesale markets that operate on a fixed commission basis constitute a strategic link between farmers and the procurement agencies/millers. To ensure adequate supplies of paddy for their own businesses CAs advance trade credit to the client farmers who need a regular flow of credit (during both the seasons annually that is not always possible to raise from the formal sources) for the purchase of operational inputs, on farm investments and various consumption purposes. So mutual interdependences, hereditary characters of the business enterprises and close proximities have enabled the chain partners to build up close personal relationships in the repeat business transactions. Farmers sell paddy through the preferred CAs during the post-harvest period, and personal relationships play a pivotal role in chain coordination while captive relationships ensure timely payments. For advancing trade credit, CAs' preferred choices are the medium and large sized farmers due to lower risks while the small sized farmers are less preferred because of their weak asset positions and payment uncertainties that increase the operational costs of trade credit. CAs make amicable adjustments to the utmost so that farmers do not shift away from their preferred CAs. CAs do not share any market risk, however, when paddy payments from the government to farmers get delayed they at their personal levels meet the requirements for cash contingencies of the client farmers. Knowledge gained from this study provides managerial and policy insights on the supply chain management mechanisms for the supplies of an essential input and its timely recoveries.     

中国农林生物质发电产业现行电价补贴效果研究

从生物质能源电价补贴政策视角出发,构建了政府、企业、中间人和农户为一体的农林生物质发电产业系统动力学模型,通过模拟、对比不同补贴政策组合下的实施效果,对现行补贴政策进行量化评价。结果表明:现行补贴额度无法扭转发电企业亏损状态,且现行的直接退出机制将导致企业出现更为严重的亏损,而适当调整补贴额度并实行逐减退出方式可提高各主体及产业整体利润。因此,为了促进中国农林生物质发电产业的快速发展,就要保障生物质补贴资金优先及时发放,同时推进可再生能源配额制度和绿证交易制度建设,以促进产业快速良序发展,实现生物质资源充分利用。     

Measuring the social costs of suboptimal combinations of policy instruments: A general framework and an example

Since most agricultural programs employ two or more policy instruments simultaneously, it is notable thai little research has attempted to find optimal instrument combinations and no research exists which evaluates the social costs (unrealized benefits) of combining instruments suboptimally. In our paper we report a simple and feasible method to find optimal policy instrument combinations, and we provide the first general, formal approach to measuring the social costs of suboptimal policy instrument combinations. Our approach is illustrated in an analysis for live major U.S. crops (corn, feed grains, wheat, rice, cotton). The simple model we employ for the illustration suggests that except lor the feed grains program, the observed programs combined policy instruments quite suboptimally. We conclude that agricultural economics research now can and should begin placing increased emphasis on studying optimal policy instrument combinations.     

基于选择实验法的农户秸秆资源化利用政策偏好研究

目的 秸秆资源化利用是促进农业经济增长和缓解环境污染的重要措施。方法 文章基于选择实验法和山东省978个农户调研数据,对农户秸秆资源化利用政策偏好问题进行研究。结果 （1）随着农户经营规模增加,其对秸秆进行资源化利用意愿将不断增强,小规模、中规模和大规模农户选择“愿意”的比重分别为54.9%、77.7%和82.8%。（2）秸秆禁烧政策、农户直接补贴、技术培训和完善市场等政策能显著提高农户秸秆资源化利用率。（3）是否参加合作社、便利性认知、污染认知、政策认知和资源化利用意愿对农户秸秆处理行为有显著影响。（4）不同规模农户对秸秆资源化利用政策偏好优先序存在较大差异。其中,小规模农户对农户直接补贴的接受意愿最高,其次为技术培训;中规模农户对农机购置补贴的接受意愿最高,其次为技术培训;大规模农户对完善市场的接受意愿最高,其次为农机购置补贴。结论 要提升农户秸秆资源化利用积极性,必须制定多元化、综合性的秸秆资源化利用政策,同时强化对农户的技术培训和设备支持。