A novel approach to quality assessment of plant health clinics

Since 2003, community-based plant health clinics have been established in several developing countries as a new, low-cost method to provide plant health advice to smallholder farmers who have limited access to advisory services. As the plant clinics are becoming more widespread, there is an increasing need to create basic procedures to regulate clinic operations. This paper describes how the concepts of ‘plant health clinic quality’ evolved from 2006 to 2009 and how a novel framework for quality assessment was developed in Nicaragua, Bangladesh, Vietnam, Bolivia and Uganda. Quality criteria for plant clinics include technical quality, timeliness, staff attitude, feasibility of advice, clinic location, materials, organization and outreach. These criteria show many similarities to those applied successfully in human and animal healthcare. Allowing plant clinic staff and their supervisors to define the quality criteria and monitoring methods themselves has helped raise awareness about clinic performance and improve self-assessment skills. Monitoring visits are being done more consciously and systematically and there are indications that register management and decision-making processes are improving as well as staff motivation. Monitoring protocols and quality assessment are now accepted as an essential component of plant clinic operations to improve clinic performance and accountability to farmers.     

数字金融对农户绿色施药的影响研究——基于信息可得性视角

目的 文章基于农户施药的视角,探讨新兴金融业态——数字金融能否实现农业绿色发展,并分析两者之间的影响机制。方法 以中国土地经济调查（CLES）数据为样本,利用IV-Probit模型,在检验数字金融信息效应的基础上,分析数字金融对农户绿色施药的作用效果及机制,并通过分样本回归的方法进行异质性分析。结果 （1）数字金融发展促进农户采用高效低毒低残留农药。（2）机制检验发现,数字金融发展对农户发挥显著的信息效应,提升了农户信息可得性,进而促进农户绿色施药。（3）数字金融发展对农户采用高效低毒低残留农药的促进作用在接受过农业技能培训、金融素养高的群体中更明显,在环境规制强的地区,数字金融对当地农户采用高效低毒低残留农药的促进作用也更强。结论 未来应进一步推动数字金融发展,同时提高农户农业生产技能水平与金融素养,地方政府应强化环境规制,充分发挥自身对农业绿色生产的外部约束作用。     

Determinants of Health Costs due to Farmers’ Exposure to Pesticides: An Empirical Analysis

Pesticide spraying by farmers has an adverse impact on their health. However, in studies to date examining farmers’ exposure to pesticides, the costs of ill health and their determinants have been based on information provided by farmers themselves. Some doubt has therefore been cast on the reliability of these estimates. In this study, we address this by conducting surveys among two groups of farmers who use pesticides on a regular basis. The first group is made up of farmers who perceive that their ill health is due to exposure to pesticides and have obtained at least some form of treatment (described in this article as the ‘general farmer group’). The second group is composed of farmers whose ill health has been diagnosed by doctors and who have been treated in hospital for exposure to pesticides (described here as the ‘hospitalised farmer group’). Cost comparisons are made between the two groups of farmers. Regression analysis of the determinants of health costs show that the most important determinants of medical costs for both samples are the defensive expenditure, the quantity of pesticides used per acre per month, frequency of pesticide use and number of pesticides used per hour per day. The results have important policy implications.     

互联网嵌入对农户化学农药减量使用的影响——基于PSM模型的计量分析

[目的]在数字农业和绿色农业的双重背景下,探讨互联网嵌入对农户化学农药减量使用的影响,有助于实现农业数字化和绿色化发展。[方法]文章基于四川省712份微观农户调研数据,采用倾向得分匹配法实证检验了互联网嵌入是否会减少农户化学农药使用,并分析了其影响效应在不同农户群体中的异质性。[结果]互联网嵌入对农户减少化学农药使用具有显著的正向影响,其平均处理效应为0.114;互联网嵌入能有效促进小农户、专业种植大户和家庭农场减少化学农药使用,平均处理效应分别介于0.104～0.113、0.078～0.103和0.116～0.128;互联网嵌入对家庭农场减少化学农药使用的促进作用略大于小农户和专业种植大户,而相比于专业种植大户,互联网嵌入对小农户化学农药减量使用的促进作用更强。[结论]应推进农村新基建发展,提升农村互联网普及率,采取差异化的措施,鼓励家庭农场发展,引导家庭农场将互联网技术应用于农业生产,并加强互联网技术宣传与培训,提升小农户和专业种植大户嵌入互联网的能力,以促进农户减少化学农药使用。     

Do Plant Clinics Improve Household Food Security? Evidence from Rwanda

One of the main drivers of food insecurity is pests, which are estimated to cause around 40% of crop losses worldwide. We examine the food security effects of plant clinics, a novel agricultural extension model that aims to reduce crop losses due to pests through the provision of demand‐driven plant health diagnostic and advisory services to smallholder farmers. The study is based on survey data from maize‐growing households in Rwanda, where 66 plant clinics have been established. Using switching regression and matching techniques as well as various food security metrics, including the food insecurity experience scale, we find evidence that participation in plant clinics is significantly associated with a reduction in household food insecurity. For instance, among the participating households, plant clinics contribute to a decrease in the period of food shortage by one month and a reduction in the severity of food insecurity by 22 percentage points. We also show that these effects are more pronounced for female‐headed households. Overall, our findings suggest that plant clinics can play an important role in achieving the Sustainable Development Goal 2 of zero hunger.     

土地流转对农民创业的影响研究基于社会资本的调节作用分析

目的 土地细碎化与传统分散式经营一定程度阻碍了农业适度规模经营与农民创业,探索土地流转对农民创业的影响,对加速农业现代化发展、实现农民增收具有重要意义。方法 文章阐释土地流转影响农民创业的机理,并依据陕西、宁夏、山东3省（区）1 947份农户调研数据,运用Probit模型实证检验土地流转对农民创业的影响,同时进一步测度社会资本是否发挥调节作用。结果 （1）转入土地正向促进农民创业基本决策,而转出土地负向抑制农民创业基本决策,显著性水平分别为1%和5%。（2）进一步划分创业类型后显示,转入土地能显著促进农民开展涉农创业,而转出土地能促进农民开展非农创业。（3）社会资本的调节作用显著,具体表现为,整合型社会资本在转入土地影响涉农创业中发挥调节作用,而跨越型社会资本在转出土地影响非农创业中发挥调节作用。结论 因此,建议持续推进土地流转政策的深化改革,确保从土地流转到农民创业的顺利衔接;加强农民创业培训体系建设,考核培训后的效益效果,通过提升培训质量助推农民创业;鼓励农民增强社交意识,灵活运用社会网络获取资源,并通过积极社交打通阶级壁垒、促进信息流动,加速创业的开展。     

How crop insurance influences agrochemical input use: Evidence from cotton farmers in China

Crop insurance is critical in risk management in global agricultural production (e.g. by helping stabilise farmers' incomes in the long term and reducing risk-bearing costs). In this paper, using field survey data on cotton farmers in Xinjiang, China, we examine the influence of crop insurance on farmers' behaviours regarding agrochemical inputs and aim to investigate the synergy between crop insurance and reductions in fertiliser and pesticide usage. We find evidence that crop insurance significantly negatively affects farmers' use of fertilisers and pesticides, as well as significantly positively affects their adoption of green agricultural technologies (GAT) that can replace or complement traditional fertilisers and pesticides. Moreover, our results reveal that compared with small-scale farmers, crop insurance has a stronger effect on large-scale farmers' use of agrochemicals. Finally, when the insured amount is higher or the relative deductible is lower, farmers are more likely to reduce fertiliser and pesticide usage and adopt GAT. Overall, this paper scientifically identifies crop insurance can improve farmers' agrochemical input behaviour, by reducing farmers' use of traditional agrochemical inputs and increasing their adoption of GAT, which is of great significance for ensuring the safety of the agricultural ecological environment.     

Neighbourhood Effects in Pesticide Use: Evidence from the Rural Philippines

This study investigates how pesticide use by neighbouring farmers affects a given farmer's pesticide use. Although it is common knowledge that pesticide use has spatial externalities, few empirical economic studies explicitly analyse this issue. Applying a spatial panel econometric model to plot‐level panel data for Bohol, Philippines, this study shows that pesticide use, especially for herbicides, is spatially correlated, although there is no statistically significant spatial correlation in unobserved shocks. This implies that farmers apply pesticides by referring to the behaviour of neighbouring farmers rather than responding directly to the intensity of their own infestation.     

农户高效低毒农药施用行为影响因素及差异性分析基于冀、鲁、豫3省598份西瓜甜瓜种植户的调研数据

目的 通过构建市场、政府、社会3个维度的理论分析框架,文章探究了农户高效低毒农药施用行为的影响因素并进行了差异性分析,以期为高效低毒农药的有效推广提供理论参考。方法 基于冀、鲁、豫3省598份调研数据,运用Logistic模型进行实证研究。结果 （1）绿色认证、政府补贴、技术培训、与农资店员的交流程度均能正向影响农户施用行为。（2）不同种植规模、不同种植年限、不同技术认知限定下,影响农户高效低毒农药施用行为的因素存在差异。小规模种植限定下,绿色认证对农户的高效低毒农药施用行为具有正向影响;短期种植限定下,与农资店员的交流越频繁农户越有可能施用高效低毒农药;不认可高效低毒农药重要性限定下,进行过绿色认证、与农资店员交流程度的提高可以引发农户的施用行为;而政府补贴、技术培训则始终是影响农户行为的重要因素。结论 因此建议引导农户积极进行绿色认证、拓宽政府补贴的范围、扩大技术培训渠道、促进农户与农资店员的常态化交流、实施差异化的激励措施。     

Health and environmental impacts of pesticide use practices: a case study of farmers in Ekiti State,Nigeria

Commonly used pesticides and handling practices which might expose farmers and their environment to chemical hazards were investigated in the Irepodun/Ifelodun local government area of Ekiti State, Nigeria. Direct field observations and answers to a structured questionnaire from a random sample of 150 farming households showed that commonly used pesticides comprised herbicides (48.3 per cent), fungicides (28.2 per cent) and insecticides (23.5 per cent). Of these, 86.7 per cent are classified as ‘highly’ hazardous by the World Health Organization (WHO) and have been banned or restricted in many developed countries. Nearly all of the farmers (94.7 per cent) had received no formal training in safe pesticide use and mixed different products. Farmers suffered from discomforts ranging from eye irritation (91.3 per cent), skin problems (87.3 per cent), nausea (86.0 per cent), headache (83.3 per cent) and vomiting (58.0 per cent). More than half of the pesticide applicators (61.3 per cent) sprayed pesticides near water bodies. Only a few farmers reported decreasing trends in numbers of beneficial insects (27.3 per cent) and other animals (29.3 per cent). The results showed that the awareness of farmers and authorities needs to be raised regarding the use of protective equipment and correct procedures when handling pesticides and, also, that there should be stricter enforcement of existing pesticide regulation and monitoring policies to minimize the threats that the farmers' current practices pose to their health and to the environment.     

How collective efficacy makes a difference in responses to water shortage due to climate change in southwest Iran

Climate change impacts the water sector in a manner that reduces the harvest and income of farmers, thereby exacerbating poverty and many other social problems. However, through adaptation measures, farmers can manage climate change impacts and thus reduce their vulnerability. To design effective public adaptation strategies, it is crucial to understand farmers’ behaviors at the farm level in response to water shortage due to climate change. Thus, the aim of this research is to accrue empirical evidence about farmers’ perceptions of and responses to water shortage due to climate change, using the Protection Motivation Theory. To increase the predictive power of the model, this paper added the collective efficacy variable to the model. The population of interest consisted of farmers from Shushtar, a county in Khuzestan Province, southwestern Iran. A total of 251 farmers were selected using a multi-stage, clustered, random sampling method. The results of structural equation modeling revealed that model variables accounted for 39 % of variance in farmers’ adaptation behaviors. The inclusion of collective efficacy in the original model increased its predictive power and produced a model of a better fit; the proportion of variance accounted for an increase of about 11 %. These findings are expected to yield recommendations for public policy, as well as agricultural extension and education recommendations for stimulating successful adaptation behaviors among Iranian farmers.     

From our perspective: developing printed extension materials with cocoa farmers in Ghana

Farmers' lack of access to technical information constitutes a major obstacle to improving cocoa productivity in West and Central Africa. Recent debates on cocoa extension pay little attention to the potentially important role of printed extension materials for promoting cocoa integrated crop and pest management (ICPM) and encouraging farmer experimentation. A key issue concerns how to design such materials to meet farmers' needs. Typically, printed agricultural extension materials are developed by technical experts with little input from farmers, the end users. Materials developed in this way are often incomprehensible or confusing to farmers as they tend to contain too much information and use culturally inappropriate symbols and complex language. This paper describes a process involving Ghanaian cocoa farmers, communications and extension specialists to develop an illustrated booklet on cocoa integrated crop and pest management. The case study shows that farmers can make significant contributions to designing printed extension materials by bringing their own perspectives to the sequencing and design of the materials, highlighting details and showing illustrators the most effective ways to convey messages in a non-written way (using body language, colour etc.). As a result of farmers' involvement, the illustrations in the booklet are presented in a story context and sequence, and use a cause and effect approach to communicating ideas. Farmers' input also ensured that the illustrations provide a holistic presentation of cocoa farming by highlighting the linkage between application of technologies and improved household welfare. The paper concludes by offering guidelines on best practices for involving farmers in extension material development.     

农户减少化肥用量和采用有机肥的意愿研究——基于洱海流域上游面源污染防控的视角

[目的]过量施用化肥导致水体富营养化是造成洱海流域上游面源污染的主要原因之一,调查分析农户减少化肥用量和采用有机肥的意愿有助于了解其调整施肥结构的行为。当前研究忽视了农户减少化肥施用强度和采用有机肥的意愿间的替代性,未能开展联立研究。[方法]基于洱海流域上游397个水稻种植户的问卷调查数据,通过Bivariate-Probit模型对农户减少化肥用量和采用有机肥两种意愿进行分析。[结果]年龄负向影响农户减少化肥量的意愿,农户对有机肥好处的认知正向影响其减少化肥量的意愿,农户参加农业社会化服务对其减少化肥用量和采用有机肥的意愿均产生正向影响,相比之下,对农户采用有机肥意愿的促进作用更大。[结论]引导农户参加农业社会化服务以及加强宣传和培训,提高农户对有机肥作用的认知可能是加强其减少化肥用量和增加有机肥施用量意愿的有效途径。     

大都市郊区农户绿色生产行为影响因素基于上海市金山区数据的分析

目的 加快转变农业生产方式,大力发展绿色农业,是乡村振兴背景下转变农业发展方式,促进农业可持续发展的必然要求。方法 文章以上海市金山区为例,基于第三次农业普查数据,以规模经营户稻谷和小麦绿色生产行为为研究对象,对农户农业绿色生产行为的影响因素进行实证分析。结果 研究发现,播种面积的扩大、采用机播的耕作方式、农户农业经营收入的提高对减少稻谷化肥和农药的施用和促进农家肥的施用均具有积极作用,年龄越大的农户越倾向于增加稻谷农药喷洒次数;技术培训对于减少小麦化肥施用量和农药喷洒次数具有积极作用;农业经营收入和流入耕地面积对小麦农家肥的施用具有显著正向影响;长时间离开本乡镇从事兼业会增加小麦化肥的施用量,各农业绿色生产行为间都存在显著的正向影响。结论 最后为促进农业绿色生产发展,提出应发展适度规模经营、加大对农业机械和绿色生产技术的补贴力度、完善对农户的农业技术培训以及加强绿色农业社会化服务体系建设的对策建议。     

Information,motivation and resources: the missing elements in agricultural pesticide policy implementation in Ethiopia

To promote pesticide governance that protects the environment and human health, Ethiopia has developed a legal framework for pesticide registration and control. However, in Ethiopia, pesticides are still registered, traded and used inappropriately. This research analyses how Ethiopia's pesticide policy is implemented and identifies the barriers for an effective implementation of this policy. With a theoretical framework based on the information, motivations and resources of relevant actors, data are collected from state pesticide experts, traders and end users (farmers) through in-depth interviews. The overall result reveals that major gaps exist between pesticides policy on paper and its implementation in practice. The key policy actors scored low on each of the three characteristics: they have poor information available, have low motivation to implement policies and lack sufficient resources. Involvement of and collaboration with private actors is likely to improve the implementation of pesticide governance, and contribute to sustainability in agricultural and food systems in Ethiopia.     

Towards sustainable vegetable growing with farmer learning videos in Benin

Vegetable production plays an important role in nutrition, food security and poverty reduction in Benin. However, vegetable production is hampered by pests and farmers rely on pesticides to control them. Improving farmers’ knowledge is important for the use of sustainable, intensive agricultural practices. This paper assesses the role of learning video in changing vegetable farmers’ behaviour towards sustainable agriculture. Drawing mainly on mass distribution of learning videos, DVDs entitled ‘Improving vegetable production’ were sold through non-conventional dissemination networks from August to December 2015, to strengthen farmers’ learning. In June 2016, we interviewed a sample of 120 buyers/viewers in four different areas where the DVDs were sold. The interviews were followed by a field visit to collect evidence of the change of practices reported during the interviews. Farmers who watched the videos enhanced their creativity and adapted the learning to their environment by using more sustainable agriculture practices. About 86% of respondents indicated that they now spend less money for pesticides to manage pests and diseases. Video-mediated learning promotes local innovation, improves farmers’ knowledge and triggers agro-ecological practices with little or no input from the conventional extension system.     

Soil and Moisture Management in Mali: A Case Study Analysis for West Africa

In order for farmers to accept improved soil and water management practices, new technologies must be appropriate to the specific site conditions found in the farm setting and be consistent with farmers' objectives and available resources. A whole-farm modeling analysis of this problem is described. Preliminary estimates of the benefits of increased soil moisture conservation for representative low-resource farmers in Mali are presented. If farmers could improve rainfall infiltration from currently low rates of about 40% up to 60%, and use small amounts of chemical fertilizers, disposable income could increase two to four times depending on rainfall. Income could be increased another 50% if the infiltration rate was raised to 80%. Food grain production could increase 60 to 90% with improved moisture conservation and fertilizer use.     

Who are Advisory Services Leaving Out? A Critical Reflection on ‘Hard to Reach’ Farmers

Although the Common Agricultural Policy of the European Union has broadened its objectives to integrate social issues, several hard-to-reach groups of farmers and workers continue to be ignored by advisory services and associated policies. Connecting with these groups has a strong potential to increase the economic and social cohesion of European agricultures. We interviewed over 1,000 farmers across Europe and identified features of these groups that are often overlooked by advisory services. We critically reflected on the social cohorts omitted from advisory services and how they could be better reached; they include farm labourers, new entrants or ‘career changers’, and later adopters. We clarify the different types of advisors in the advisory landscape, distinguishing between those who are linked to or independent from sales of inputs or technologies. We make concrete recommendations about how to engage advisors with hard-to-reach groups, with approaches suited to different national contexts of Agricultural Knowledge and Innovation Systems (AKIS); thus contributing to the ‘AKIS dimension of National Strategic Plans of the next Common Agricultural Policy, 2023–2027. We argue for the more effective use of advances in the social sciences through a better understanding of advice as social interaction which can bolster the inclusiveness of public policies.