Tracking precursors of entrepreneurial intention: the case of researchers involved in eco-label industry

This article is based on the adaptation of Ajzen’s theory of planned behavior (TPB) to build an entrepreneurial intention framework tailored to the specific context of researchers involved in eco-label industry, who can be perceived as nascent entrepreneurs. The entrepreneurial intention model is tested on a convenience sample of researchers involved in eco-label industry from a wide range of countries. The configurational effect of research experience, personal attitude, funding instruments and entrepreneurial education level is tested for causal condition related to entrepreneurial intention of 25 eco-label researchers. The qualitative approach of data reveals that research experience and personal attitude relate positively to entrepreneurial career intentions and that these relationships are mediated by entrepreneurial education level. A multi-sided online platform connecting innovators and potential investors is considered a suitable solution for funding respondents’ results of research and innovation activities. Stimulating entrepreneurial motivations and intentions may help researchers to better adapt to alternative career perspectives. Results of this study suggest several ways to stimulate entrepreneurial career choices among researchers involved in eco-label industry.

     

Entrepreneurial intention among University students in Malaysia: integrating self-determination theory and the theory of planned behavior

The present study endeavors to develop a deeper understanding of the motivational processes involved in intentional entrepreneurial behavior. For this purpose, it integrates the social cognitive approach of the theory of planned behavior (TPB) and the organismic theory of motivation of self-determination theory (SDT). More specifically, it tests the role of basic psychological needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness as defined in SDT in shaping university students’ attitudes and intentions toward entrepreneurship. The sample of this study consisted of 438 (Males?=?166, Females =272) 3rd and 4th year university students from four Malaysian Public Universities. The results of the study show that the model strongly explains about 71% of the variance in entrepreneurial intention. Basic psychological needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness have a strong indirect impact on entrepreneurial intention via their attitudinal antecedents: attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control. This indicates a full-mediational model, where the attitudinal factors operated as transmitters of effects from the distal constructs of SDT on entrepreneurial intention. These findings confirm that both SDT and the TPB provide complementary explanations of the motivational processes of entrepreneurial behavior. The study contributes to the existing knowledge by providing a theory-based understanding of the role of motivations in the formation of entrepreneurial intentions. It opens the way for future research to analyze how alternative motivations may affect new venture creation, survival and success.

     

Evaluating the impact of prior experience in entrepreneurial intention

Although entrepreneurial behavior is proposed as part of the solution to fragile labor markets, in particular in periods of economic and social change, policy makers are struggling to find the right levers to promote it. Despite the extant prior research on entrepreneurial behavior, little is known on the entrepreneurial behavior drivers for the individuals of working age with experience. Prior research explores the influence of entrepreneurial knowledge to study the drivers of experienced individuals evaluating whether or not to engage in an entrepreneurial behavior. This research introduces entrepreneurial knowledge to study the impact of prior experience on entrepreneurial intention. Based on the theory of planned behavior (TPB), this research work analyzes the relationship between entrepreneurial knowledge and entrepreneurial intention, and the mediating effects of the TPB perceptual variables: personal attitude (PA), social norm (SN), and perceived behavioral-control (PBC). A structural equation model (SEM) has been used to analyze the responses of a sample of 431 experienced individuals of working-age that completed a questionnaire based on Liñan & Chen’s, Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 593–618, (2009) Entrepreneurial Intention Questionnaire (EIQ). The results showed that entrepreneurial knowledge positively influences entrepreneurial intention and that this influence is mediated by the perceptual variables of the TPB model (PA, SN, PBC). These findings contribute to the understanding of the entrepreneurial intention for experienced individuals and consolidate the use of the TPB model to study individual entrepreneurial intention. The findings suggest that policy makers should pay more attention to individual entrepreneurial knowledge, and strengthen the attractiveness of an entrepreneurial career, if they are interested in fostering entrepreneurial behavior among individuals of working age with experience.     

Unlocking the influence of family business exposure on entrepreneurial intentions

Although the impact of family business exposure on offspring’s entrepreneurial intentions has attracted significant attention, assessments of this impact remain inconsistent. To solve this puzzle, we switch the focus from the presence of family business exposure to the content of exposure by examining the learning experiences of business family offspring. Specifically, we test the impact of perceived parental entrepreneurial rewards on entrepreneurial intentions and explore the underlying process in this relationship. Findings from a sample of 131 Chinese business family offspring support that perceived parental entrepreneurial rewards are positively related to entrepreneurial intentions, and this relationship is found to be partially mediated by entrepreneurial self-efficacy; additionally, offspring’s family business involvement weakens the positive impact of perceived parental entrepreneurial rewards on entrepreneurial intentions but strengthens the impact of entrepreneurial self-efficacy. The findings from this research contribute to the social cognitive career theory, family business, and entrepreneurial cognition literature. We also provide practical guidance for parent entrepreneurs by clarifying the impact of perceived parental entrepreneurial rewards and family business involvement on their children’s entrepreneurial intentions.     

Intention as a cognitive antecedent to international entrepreneurship��understanding the moderating roles of knowledge and experience

While International Entrepreneurship has attracted scholars’ attention during the last two decades, the impact cognitive aspects exert has been studied on cursory level only. The purpose of this paper was to apply the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) to the very field of International Entrepreneurship in order to examine whether this theory contributes to clarify what influences Small and Medium-sized Enterprises’ (SME) decision-makers’ intention—an important cognitive antecedent to behavior—to play an active part in internationalization. In particular, it had to be clarified whether or not International Entrepreneurship—due to its contextual specificities—deserves to be extended by further elements, i.e. experience and knowledge. Based on more than 100 responses from German SME executives, the study yielded several interesting results. First, TPB indeed helps explain how intentions to actively participate in international business are built. Second, an extension of the theory’s basic model seems to make sense, probably due to the specificities of international entrepreneurial behavior. As for the extensions, direct and moderating effects have been observed. Furthermore, cognitive elements seem to be key entrepreneurial resources which serve as sort of enablers. From these results several conclusions can be drawn. Cognitive aspects are a promising starting point for understanding decision-making in SME. Thus, the intersection of international entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial cognition deserves further attention—several examples for possible future studies are presented. Policies supporting SME should be extended: pure resource-based approaches seem to be insufficient. Furthermore, entrepreneurship courses and curricula should reflect the relevance of cognitive aspects.     

Regional variations in entrepreneurial cognitions: Start-up intentions of university students in Spain

Empirical research has recently paid considerable attention to the role of environmental factors in explaining regional variations in entrepreneurial activity. However, cognitive models have not usually included these factors in their analyses. Therefore, the main objective of this study is to identify some of the environmental cognitive elements that may explain regional differences in start-up intentions. Thus, an entrepreneurial intention model is developed, theoretically based on the planned behaviour approach, institutional economic theory and social capital theory. The empirical analysis is carried out using structural equation techniques over a sample of 549 final year university students from two Spanish regions (Catalonia and Andalusia). Results confirm that valuation of entrepreneurship in each region helps explain regional differences in entrepreneurial intentions. As expected, social valuation of the entrepreneur was higher in the more developed region (Catalonia), positively affecting perceived subjective norms and behavioural control. In Andalusia, the influence of perceived valuation of the entrepreneur in the closer environment was more important, affecting attitude towards the behaviour and subjective norms. These results explain some of the differences in the pool of potential entrepreneurs in each region. They also justify the need by public-policy decision-makers to promote more positive entrepreneurial values in relatively backward regions.     

Logics,Leaders, Lab Coats: A Multi‐Level Study on How Institutional Logics are Linked to Entrepreneurial Intentions in Academia

Situated in the context of academia, this study integrates ideas from institutional theory, person‐environment fit theory and leadership research to conceptualize and examine the cross‐level link between the organizational‐level institutional logic of research commercialization and the entrepreneurial intentions of researchers. Multi‐level analyses based on a sample of 254 researchers working for 85 research group leaders in 49 German research institutes reveal that two distinct attributes of research group leaders – that is, their track records of entrepreneurial behaviour and their entrepreneurial intentions – play a significant role in transmitting the organizational‐level logic to the individual level. We also observe a complementary interaction between organizational‐level commercialization logic and the entrepreneurial track records of leaders. We discuss how these findings advance our understanding of science commercialization through academic entrepreneurship and how they inform institutional theory and theory development in other domains of entrepreneurship research.     

Social capital effects on the discovery and exploitation of entrepreneurial opportunities

Social capital refers to social networks and the norms of reciprocity, cooperation and trust associated with them. It can be studied at different levels of analysis. As previous literature suggests, social capital has aspects at both the individual and collective levels. However, theory development and empirical research have focused on separate, sometimes diverging levels. In an attempt to address this, this research examines the simultaneous influence of individual and regional social capital on the discovery and exploitation of entrepreneurial opportunities using individual-level data from the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor linked with regional-level data on social capital. The results show that individuals from regions with higher social capital are more likely to discover and to exploit entrepreneurial opportunities. Moreover, individuals having networks with other entrepreneurs are also more likely to identify a business opportunity and to become an entrepreneur. Also, we found that social capital at individual level had a greater effect than social capital at regional level in the two stages of the entrepreneurial process.     

The entrepreneurial process: an integrated model

In this study, a model for examining the process of how a person becomes an entrepreneur was developed by integrating planned behavior theory (PBT) with motivation-opportunity-ability (MOA) theory. The model posits that motivation, opportunity, and ability affect entrepreneurial intentions through personal attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control. A sample of 258 valid questionnaires was collected from entrepreneurial training-course participants in Taiwan. Based on this sample, a structural-equation analysis reveals several interesting results. First, personal attitude and perceived behavior control have a direct effect on entrepreneurial intentions. Second, subjective norms indirectly affect entrepreneurial intentions through personal attitude and perceived behavior control. Third, motivation affects entrepreneurial intentions through personal attitude and perceived behavioral control. Fourth, ability exhibits a directly positive association with entrepreneurial intentions, and indirectly affects entrepreneurial intentions through perceived behavioral control. Fifth, subjective norms affect entrepreneurial intentions through personal attitude and perceived behavioral control. These findings suggest that our model provides more information than those offered by PBT or MOA in understanding the process of becoming an entrepreneur.     

The spatial dynamics of new firm births during an economic crisis: the case of Great Britain, 2004–2012

Abstract

Spatial variations in entrepreneurial activity have been shown to be a time persistent phenomenon in many countries. This paper analyses how these spatial variations have been affected by the recent financial crisis within the context of theories of regional resilience and adaptability. The analysis applies Exploratory Spatial Data Analysis techniques to data on firm births across Local Authority Districts of Great Britain during the period 2004–2012. The results demonstrate that, whilst the overall shape of the spatial distribution of firm births remained persistent, there is evidence of an increase in regional inequality. This is primarily associated with a divergence between London and the rest of the distribution. London, together with part of its surrounding area, appears to constitute a resilient entrepreneurial regime that has generated a dynamic, adaptive response to the crisis with high rates of new firm formation in contrast to other regions which have remained locked into lower rates of entrepreneurship. This supports the view that regional entrepreneurship is a path dependent process: entrepreneurial regions are more adaptable to the effects of an exogenous shock than less entrepreneurial regions. Accordingly, entrepreneurship is a critical factor influencing the resilience of regions in responding to an economic crisis.     

Growth intentions among research scientists: A cognitive style perspective

Although academic entrepreneurship has taken place in some U.S. universities for many decades, it is only over the past few decades that there has been an increased interest by universities worldwide to engage in their third mission related to entrepreneurship and economic development. Recently, researchers studying academic entrepreneurship have increasingly focused on understanding research scientists׳ entrepreneurial intentions. It has however also been acknowledged that, next to understanding entrepreneurial intentions, it is important to generate insights into growth intentions. This is because growth is unlikely to be achieved if no growth intention exists. Taking a cognition and self-efficacy perspective, our study explores how cognitive styles are associated with growth intentions within a group of research scientists having entrepreneurial intentions. Our study indicates that a planning cognitive style promotes while a knowing cognitive style curbs growth intentions. Further, working experience mitigates the negative impact of a knowing style on growth intentions. Our research has practical implications and implications for technology management, academic entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial intentions literatures.     

The influence of entrepreneurs’ immigrant status and time on the perceived likelihood of exporting

We contribute in this paper to the scant literature on the factors and conditions influencing the development of different perceptions of potential international opportunities for immigrant and native entrepreneurs in the pre-internationalization phase. Specifically, we investigate what factors influence the perceived likelihood entrepreneurs have of exporting. Building on entrepreneurial intentions and opportunity-based entrepreneurial processes, we propose a cognitive account of perceived likelihood of exporting based on entrepreneurs’ perceptions of the desirability and feasibility of export opportunities. We investigate how the immigrant status (i.e., individual characteristics) and time (i.e., contextual factors) influence the relationship between the desirability and feasibility of exporting, and entrepreneurs’ perceived likelihood of exporting. We employ an experimental design on a matched-pair sample of 108 native and immigrant entrepreneurs in domestic technology-based firms. The results are a unique account of the cognitive antecedents of the perceived likelihood of exporting under different temporal conditions, comparing immigrant and native entrepreneurs. We discuss theoretical and practical implications.

     

Why are some graduate entrepreneurs more innovative than others? The effect of human capital,psychological factor and entrepreneurial rewards on entrepreneurial innovativeness

This study investigates the innovation behaviour of graduate start-ups at the individual level. It bridges the graduate enterprise literature and innovative entrepreneurship literature to put forward three arguments that ascertain why highly educated graduate entrepreneurs are not always innovative in starting new businesses. First, anchoring on the individual opportunity costs–entrepreneurial rewards nexus, it argues that graduate entrepreneurs will exploit opportunities innovatively if they expect the levels of entrepreneurial rewards that match their high human capital and high opportunity costs. Second, it is argued that entrepreneurial innovativeness is conditional on psychological factors such as students’ managerial self-efficacy and overconfidence. Third, it is also argued that the nonlinear relationship between entrepreneurial innovativeness and entrepreneurial rewards will drive graduate entrepreneurs to exploit even riskier opportunities in search for high rewards. This study operationalizes the theoretical framework with an empirical model and estimates it using a graduate entrepreneur sample from a questionnaire survey in China. Our results suggest that innovation behaviour of graduate start-ups is influenced by the quantity of human capital, psychological make-up and expectations of entrepreneurial rewards.     

Explaining nation-wide differences in entrepreneurial activity: a legitimacy perspective

The present study applies the lens of Institutional Theory to analyze the impact of a country’s entrepreneurial legitimacy on its entrepreneurial activity as well as on entrepreneurs’ access to financing. By creating a structural equation model of entrepreneurship in innovation-driven countries, the authors show that countries with greater entrepreneurial legitimacy have more entrepreneurial activity. The model was tested over a 5-year period, from 2009 to 2013. Results suggest that innovation-driven countries with more entrepreneurial legitimacy obtain greater rates of entrepreneurial activity. Further distinguishing among legitimacy types, cognitive legitimacy is shown to exert a stronger influence than regulative or normative legitimacy. The model also confirms a positive relationship between a country’s entrepreneurial legitimacy and access to financing. This occurs principally through regulative legitimacy. This study enlarges our knowledge of the existing differences in entrepreneurial activity among countries. It contributes to the literature on the country-level determinants of entrepreneurship, such as institutional conditions or financial access.     

Modeling tourists' visiting intentions toward ecofriendly destinations: Implications for sustainable tourism operators

The previous literature has overlooked the examination of tourists' visiting intentions for ecofriendly destinations. Hence, anchored in Schwartz (1992) personal values and the theory of planned behavior (TPB), the present study aims to develop a research model for application in Chinese settings. Survey findings from 467 tourists reveal significant positive relationships between tourists' values of resultant self‐transcendence and conservation and TPB factors (i.e., attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control), with the exception of the relationship between conservation and perceived behavioral control. Moreover, TPB factors and perceived green image were found to have positive effects on tourists' intentions to visit ecofriendly destinations. In addition, environmental consciousness positively moderates the relationships between the two Schwartz values and attitude. Theoretical implications are provided, and the study's findings have strategic practical implications for business managers. We acknowledge the study's limitations and offer research directions for future ecofriendly tourism scholars.     

Entrepreneurial Intentions and Outcomes: a Comparative Causal Mapping Study

This paper uses a causal map methodology to consider the contrasts between entrepreneurial intentions and outcomes. In evaluating a series of propositions drawn from the extant literature the study finds that the elicited causal maps are consistent with contrasts in entrepreneurial intentions, but not outcomes. This suggests that the existing emphasis on entrepreneurial strategies being deliberate, conscious processes may be misplaced: non-deliberate, emergent strategies may be just as influential in producing entrepreneurial outcomes. The study develops a series of output propositions suggesting that entrepreneurial outcomes are associated with causal maps which connect the internal operations of the business with the external environment. This implies that entrepreneurial success may be a result of intuitive systems thinking in which connections are made between the environment and the internal operations of the business.     

How to face a political boycott: the relevance of entrepreneurs’ awareness

Despite the growth in the number of consumer boycotts, the marketing literature has paid little attention to the factors that could explain such behavior or the effect of boycotts on entrepreneurial initiatives. Several studies have examined the motivations of customer boycott behavior. Nevertheless, its relation to other attitudinal variables and with firm-related characteristics has not been analyzed or has been dealt with only partially even though the implications are crucial for incumbents and start-ups to adapt their strategies. This paper examines the factors that could explain the consumer’s decision to boycott a brand because of its location in a specific country. The relevance of addressing this gap is based on the boycotts’ impact on local firms and start-ups performance. This study addresses this issue by proposing a model that considers consumer-related variables and the perceived importance of brands. The hypotheses proposed in this research are verified via variance-based partial least squares structural equation modeling. The authors tested their framework during an actual boycott to Catalonian products and firms promoted on social media in Spain. The discussion of the results and their implications contribute to improving entrepreneurs, managers and academics’ comprehension of the determinants of customers’ intentions to participate in a boycott. This can also provide entrepreneurs and managers with a guide to orientate the design and implementation of strategies that enable the reduction of customer abandonment due to political boycotts. The main value of this research is that it provides a comprehensive model that includes different sorts of variables that could be involved in consumer boycott behavior. This model can support flexible entrepreneurial and managerial practices to help entrepreneurs to adapt rapidly to changes in the market due to boycotts.

     

Does the opening of high-speed rail enhance urban entrepreneurial activity? Evidence from China

Entrepreneurship plays a critical role in contributing to the realization of full employment in all countries around the world. By improving the efficiency of the flow of production factors, high-speed rail (HSR) has an important impact on regional economic development. However, little is known about whether HSR has improved urban entrepreneurial activity. This paper takes the opening of HSR as a quasi-natural experiment and constructs a difference-in-differences (DID) model, using panel data on 284 prefecture-level cities in China for the period from 2005 to 2019, to systematically evaluate the impact of HSR openings on urban entrepreneurial activity. We find that the opening of HSR has increased the urban entrepreneurial activity, and that this effect is more obvious in cities at high administrative levels, with locational advantages, and highly developed economies, including service industries. HSR can enhance urban entrepreneurial activity by improving the level of talent aggregation and venture capital. These findings provide fresh perspectives on the connection between HSR and urban entrepreneurial activity.     

Impact of high‐growth start‐ups on entrepreneurial environment based on the level of national economic development

In this paper, we examine the relationship between the conditions of the entrepreneurial environment and high‐potential entrepreneurship according to the stage of economic development of the country. A structural equation model was designed based on data from the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor project, which contains information about 62 countries. Our results suggest that economic development and high‐potential entrepreneurship have a greater impact on the entrepreneurial ecosystem than entrepreneurial activity in general—with special effects on government programs, R&D transfer, and access to the domestic market. Notably, the level of influence of sustainable economic development and high‐potential entrepreneurship depends on the level of economic development of the country.