DO ACTIONS SPEAK AS LOUD AS WORDS? COMMITMENTS TO “GOING GREEN” ON CAMPUS

Signatories to the American College and University Presidents' Climate Commitment (ACUPCC) pledge to pursue a path toward carbon neutrality through the choice of a set of Tangible Actions (TAs). The actions can be chosen either because they will lead to reductions or because they are the easiest to achieve. By exploiting the variation in the TAs chosen by colleges, we find evidence for both of these motivations. We find evidence that schools focusing their efforts on improving energy efficiency have achieved swift reductions. Conversely, schools pledging to use green power are generally already utilizing it and therefore do not achieve additional reductions. We conclude with suggestions for improvement in the ACUPCC reporting system that would improve potential for analysis. (JEL Q01, Q40, Q56)     

基于SFA方法的碳排放效率 区域差异化与协调机制研究

本文主要采用SFA模型,将对碳排放效率有影响的七个变量加入模型,测算出1996-2011年的碳排放效率值。然后从时间和空间的角度分析了碳排放效率的变化趋势。研究表明,碳排放效率在整体上处于上升阶段,在地区上存在趋异的现象,即碳排放效率随着时间的发展表现出更大的地区差异性。因此,我们有必要建立系统的碳排放协调机制,保证碳交易市场有效运行。     

中国工业部门的能源效率与减排潜力分析

基于全要素能源效率框架,本文通过引入方向性距离函数和数据包络分析,测算了中国工业部门2000-2009年的能源效率和CO2减排潜力。实证结果表明,以既定最优生产前沿为参考,中国工业部门的总体能源效率偏低,减排潜力较大;各行业能源效率与减排潜力存在较大差异;不同行业能源效率与减排潜力呈现差异性动态变化。本文认为政府可以通过实施差异性碳税政策、灵活利用碳市场机制、强化节能技术研发和促进可再生能源利用以及加强企业环境执法监管等举措来推动中国工业部门提高能源效率及减少CO2排放。     

Accounting for Australian Carbon Dioxide Emissions*

This paper provides an accounting for carbon dioxide emissions arising in Australia by final demand deliveries responsible, using input-output andprimary energy input data for 1982-83. Commodities are ranked by emissons per unit and total emissions. It is shown how the methodology employed usefully structures analysis of emissions reductions options, and can compute the system wide implications of specific measures in terms of total emissions. It is established that emissions arising in producing for export are approximately the same as emissions attributable to imports.     

Imported carbon emissions: Evidence from French manufacturing companies

This paper analyzes imported carbon emission at the firm level. To do so, we combine information on emissions, imports, imported emissions and energy prices for French manufacturing firms between 1997 and 2014. We document a significant increase of the carbon emissions embedded in imports of French manufacturing companies over the period 1997 to 2014 that is attributable mainly to a shift towards more carbon-intensive products and countries. We then estimate the impact of imported emissions on domestic emissions and emission intensity using a shift-share instrumental variable strategy based on third countries supply shocks. We do not find compelling evidence of an impact of carbon imports on total emissions, but emission efficiency improves significantly in companies offshoring emissions abroad. A 10% increase in carbon offshoring causes a 4% decline in emission intensity. In addition, we find that the elasticity of domestic emission intensity to imported emissions is stronger in energy-intensive sectors, on high-productivity companies and among exporters. Reassuringly, the relationship between imported emissions and emission intensity does not seem to be driven by a pollution haven motive.     

人工智能技术对碳排放的影响

随着新一轮科技革命和产业变革的深入推进，人工智能技术在应对气候变化方面扮演重要角色，并赋能“碳达峰、碳中和”目标的实现。利用2006—2019年中国内地省级面板数据，考察人工智能技术对碳排放的影响。研究发现：人工智能技术与碳排放之间呈倒U型关系，即当人工智能技术达到一定阈值后，其碳减排效应逐渐凸显；人工智能技术主要通过提高能源利用效率实现碳减排；在东部和西部地区，人工智能技术与碳排放之间存在显著倒U型关系，而在中部地区，人工智能技术对碳排放发挥持续促进作用。因此，在推进“双碳”目标过程中，需要以绿色低碳发展为目标开发人工智能技术，正确引导人工智能在碳减排领域的研发应用，针对不同区域实际制定差异化发展政策。     

Trade, technology transfer and national efficiency in developing countries

This paper simultaneously explores the determinants of the developing countries’ production frontier and these countries’ ‘efficiency’ in using the available resources and technology. In doing so it allows for the transfer of (industrial country) technology in determining the frontier and for international trade's influence on absorptive capacity and national efficiency levels. Stochastic frontier analysis is used to model the production frontier for 57 developing countries for the period 1970-1998, to measure cross-country and temporal differences in efficiency levels and to explain the differences in efficiency levels. The results indicate significant differences in efficiency levels across countries and regions and movement over time, and an important influence of trade and trade policy in raising output both through technology improvements embodied in imported capital goods and by inducing efficiency improvements.     

产业视角下的中国工业能源碳排放Divisia指数分解及实证分析

工业能源碳排放在中国总碳排放中占据极其重要的位置,也是中国低碳减排工作关注的重点.文章从产业视角出发,利用Divisia指数分解法构建中国工业能源碳排放因素分解模型,定量分析1998～2007年间,能源排放强度、能源结构、能源效率、产业结构以及产出等五因素对中国工业能源碳排放的影响.分析不同因素对中国工业能源碳排放的不同影响以及不同因素在工业系统内部各产业间的变化特性,从而为中国工业能源碳减排路径提供政策建议.     

中国的环境效率与环境管制——基于1986-2007年省级水平的估算

环境效率是生产过程中潜在可实现的最少污染排放量与实际污染排放量之比,企业能否提高环境效率取决于环保投入的产出水平。文章在随机前沿生产函数基础上估算了中国1986-2007年省级水平的环境效率,结果显示:中国的环境效率较低且增长缓慢,其中中部地区环境效率最低,西部地区环境效率最高。目前的环境管制方式在东部较为有效,对中西部的影响则不显著。因此环境管制不但要针对污染物当量,还要综合考虑企业的成本、利润水平等因素,才能更好治理污染。     

碳限额与交易政策下企业的绿色生产决策

在碳限额与交易政策下,除政府配给外,企业还可通过减少产量、生产绿色产品和购买碳排放权来获得额外的碳排放权。比较了不考虑和考虑固定成本两种情形下碳排放权市场交易价格与企业绿色产品生产成本的关系。结果表明:当企业生产绿色产品不存在固定成本时,随着碳排放权市场交易价格的提高,企业的最优产量逐渐减少,企业利润先降后增,企业由买入碳排放权转为卖出碳排放权;当企业生产绿色产品存在固定成本时,随着碳排放权市场交易价格的提高,企业生产绿色产品的固定成本的取值范围扩大。结论表明,碳限额与交易政策在控制碳排放和促进绿色制造业发展方面发挥着积极作用。     

FINANCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND THE SOURCES OF GROWTH AND CONVERGENCE*

We extend the deterministic, nonparametric production frontier framework by incorporating financial development. Our analysis convincingly shows that (1) failure to account for financial development overstates the role of physical capital accumulation in labor productivity growth, (2) most of this overstated contribution stems from the efficiency‐enhancing role of well‐functioning financial institutions, (3) international polarization is solely driven by efficiency changes, and (4) increased distributional dispersion of productivity is primarily driven by technological change. Model’s extensions to account for the growth effect of changes in the institutional environment only add to the argument about the overstated role of physical capital.     

中国碳排放量影响因素研究——基于省级面板数据的分析

采用中国30个省（市、区）2000～2010年的相关数据,运用面板数据模型对中国碳排放量的影响因素进行实证研究。面板协整检验表明：区域碳排放量与人均GDP、产业结构、人口数量、能源价格、能源效率和人均可支配收入之间存在长期稳定的内生经济关系。运用面板模型估计各因素的影响系数分析,认为对中国东部、中部、西部地区碳排放量影响最大的三大因素为人均GDP、人口数量和能源效率。     

International Cooperation on Climate-friendly Technologies

We examine international cooperation on technological development as an alternative to international cooperation on emission reductions. We show that without any R&D cooperation, R&D in each country should be increased beyond the non-cooperative level if (i) the technology level in one country is positively affected by R&D in other countries, (ii) the domestic carbon tax is lower than the Pigovian level, or (iii) the domestic carbon tax is set directly through an international tax agreement. We also show that a second-best technology agreement has higher R&D, higher emissions, or both compared with the first-best-outcome. The second-best subsidy always exceeds the subsidy under no international R&D cooperation. Further, when the price of carbon is the same in the second-best technology agreement and in the case without R&D cooperation, welfare is highest, R&D is highest and emissions are lowest in the second-best R&D agreement.     

Global impacts of the Kyoto agreement: results from the MS-MRT model

This paper analyzes the economic impacts on different regions of the world of a global agreement to limit carbon emissions. A multi-sector, multi-region trade model (MS-MRT) is developed that focuses on the international trade aspects of climate change policy. These include the distribution of impacts on economic welfare, international trade and investment across regions, the spillover effects of carbon emission limits in Annex 1 countries on non-Annex 1 countries, carbon leakage, changes in terms of trade and industry output, and the effects of international emissions trading. Our central estimates are presented with a set of sensitivity tests to assess the extent to which our conclusions depend on elasticity and baseline assumptions. A technical appendix presents algebraic details of the model structure and calibration.     

Scale,Technique and Composition Effects in Trade-Related Carbon Emissions in China

This study applies structural decomposition analysis to evaluate the scale, composition and technique effects of trade-related carbon emissions in China (mainland) from 1987 to 2007. The initial findings indicate that the increasing magnitude of China’s trade, both in terms of the carbon emissions embodied in exports and the carbon emissions avoided via imports, had large-scale effects during the whole period. The technique effect caused by changes in input mix, sector energy intensity, fuel mix and carbon coefficients effectively offset part of the scale effect during the entire period but failed to do so during some sub-periods. Changes in trade composition caused a relative small increase in the carbon emissions created by exports but a relative small decrease in the carbon emissions avoided via imports during the whole period.     

Stochastic Cost Frontier and Inefficiency Estimates of Public and Private Universities: Does Government Matter?

Stochastic frontier analysis is used to estimate operating cost inefficiencies of public and private non-profit universities in the U.S. while also accounting for the possible effects arising from differences in the degree of government ownership. Using panel data for four academic years, 2005?C2009, inefficiencies are estimated under two model specifications. Results indicate that public universities are more cost efficient when environmental factors influence cost frontiers but private universities are the cost efficient institutions when those factors are determinants of inefficiency. Increased government funding does matter and increases private sector inefficiency but offers some efficiency improvements among public universities. Following the global financial crisis, there is evidence indicating a considerable slowdown in the inefficiency growth among both public and private universities.     

SERVICE QUALITY IN ELECTRICITY DISTRIBUTION IN BRAZIL: A MALMQUIST APPROACH

The paper undertakes a dynamic analysis for service quality in the electricity distribution in Brazil between 2010 and 2014 based on Malmquist indexes constructed upon Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) distance functions. The motivation for the less usual consideration of efficiency frontiers for service quality, that does not rely on traditional inputs and outputs but rather on quality indicators, builds on previous static applications in the context of telecommunications. The analysis considers undesirable technical indicators for quality as inputs and desirable consumer satisfaction indicators for quality as outputs in the efficiency frontier analysis. The bootstrap‐corrected Malmquist indexes indicated service quality deterioration in 38.1 per cent, quality stagnation in 40.5 per cent and quality improvement only in 21.4 per cent of the cases. When one decomposes the Malmquist index, the evidence does not suggest relevant frontier shifts and indicates a dominant role for the catch‐up effect. Finally, Malmquist indexes are regressed against variables that may portray heterogeneities, such as firm size, service area, density, ownership and regional dummies in terms of a well‐known two‐stage procedure. The mostly weak significance results reinforce the plausibility of the initial analysis.     

Cost efficiency of the Chinese banking sector: A comparison of stochastic frontier analysis and data envelopment analysis

This paper investigates the consistency of efficiency scores obtained from the stochastic frontier analysis and data envelopment analysis methods. We estimate cost efficiency and economies of scale based on an unbalanced panel data set of Chinese banks over the period 1994 to 2007. The results suggest moderate consistency between parametric and non-parametric frontier methods in efficiency scores rankings, identification of best and worst practise banks, the stability of efficiency scores over time and correlation between frontier efficiency and accounting based performance measures. Based on the findings, we conclude that the use of multiple frontier techniques for efficiency analysis is to be strongly recommended and that this methodological cross-checking analysis will result in more robust and convincing assessments of bank performance.     

环境管制与工业生产率增长：东部地区的实证研究

本文运用曼奎斯特—卢恩伯格生产率指数,测度了2000-2007年东部工业在考虑SO2和不考虑SO2排放情况下的效率、生产率增长及其成份的增长率,并且估计出了环境管制给企业带来的成本。结果发现：上海和广东处于生产前沿;考虑SO2排放后,生产率增长率下降;天津的生产率增长、技术效率增长率和技术进步率都最高,北京环境污染管制的成本最高;FD I投入、国有企业比重、资本劳动比、废气治理投资和环境管制成本对生产率增长都有显著影响。     

CARBON REDUCTION COSTS IN NEW ENGLAND'S POWER SECTOR

This paper examines the cost of reducing carbon emissions in New England's power sector. The analysis relies on detailed sectoral studies of costs and resource potentials for demand-side efficiency, cogeneration, renewables, and conventional resource options. Sectoral studies' results were integrated using a production-cost model to estimate the total cost and rate impacts of carbon reduction strategies relative to a business-as-usual forecast. To capture potential uncertainties, the analysis takes into account variations in capital costs, fuel prices, resource utilization levels, and base case retirements of existing power plants. Results show that New England's power sector can freeze carbon emissions at current levels or reduce carbon emissions while simultaneously decreasing customers' total electricity bills.