Overcoming information asymmetry in tourism carbon management: The application of a new reporting architecture to Aotearoa New Zealand

Responding to the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals and Paris Climate commitments are urgent priorities facing many governments. Meeting these commitments will require new industry management architectures that align measures of progress (economic, environmental, human and social) with government structures, datasets, and reporting. Comprehensive emissions quantification and reduction targets for tourism must be a part of this new architecture. In this paper we propose a comprehensive Tourism Carbon Information System (TCIS), comprising four essential information components: national tourism carbon footprint, the carbon-economic linkage, drivers and decarbonization progress, and benchmarking. The TCIS is then tested and applied to Aotearoa New Zealand (2007–2013) to track tourism carbon performance and its decarbonization speed, compared to the national average across sectors. This critical information sheds light on future growth in tourism relative to the national greenhouse gas inventory and establishes the required mitigation trajectory for destinations to move onto a sustainable emissions pathway.     

A review of tourism and climate change mitigation: The scales,scopes, stakeholders and strategies of carbon management

Tourism needs to reduce emissions in line with other economic sectors, if the international community's objective of staying global warming at 1.5°-2.0 °C is to be achieved. This will require the industry to half emissions to 2030, and to reach net-zero by mid-century. Mitigation requires consideration of four dimensions, the Scales, Scopes, Stakeholders and Strategies of carbon management. The paper provides a systematic review of these dimensions and their interrelationships, with a focus on emission inventory comprehensiveness; allocation principles at different scales; clearly defined responsibilities for decarbonization; and the identification of significant mitigation strategies. The paper concludes that without mitigation efforts, tourism will deplete 40% of the world's remaining carbon budget to 1.5 °C. Yet, the most powerful decarbonization measures face major corporate, political and technical barriers. Without worldwide policy efforts at the national scale to manage the sector's emissions, tourism will turn into one of the major drivers of climate change.     

旅游收入、交通基础设施和二氧化碳排放——基于PVAR模型的多变量经济学分析

本文基于中国30个省级行政区2000—2019年的面板数据,运用广义矩方法估计的面板向量自回归模型,建立一个包含旅游、交通基础设施和二氧化碳排放的多变量计量经济学模型,探讨中国旅游、交通基础设施和二氧化碳排放之间的动态关系及其空间异质性。主要研究结论：（1）全国和东中部地区存在旅游收入和交通基础设施之间的双向格兰杰因果关系,铁路里程对旅游收入的贡献要大于公路里程。（2）全国和东部地区存在旅游收入和二氧化碳排放之间的双向因果关系,旅游收入对东部地区碳排放增长的贡献最大,对西部地区碳排放增长的贡献最小。（3）公路和铁路对二氧化碳的贡献率在中部地区最大。总体上,交通基础设施与二氧化碳排放之间的格兰杰因果关系不显著。本文首次建立了一个多变量经济学分析框架综合性地讨论中国旅游收入、交通基础设施和二氧化碳排放之间的关联。文章提出的研究框架对不同空间区域和尺度的研究和实践均具有一定的启示意义。     

Decomposition of tourism greenhouse gas emissions: Revealing the dynamics between tourism economic growth,technological efficiency,and carbon emissions

This study proposes an analytical framework for decomposing the national tourism carbon footprint and carbon efficiency to identify the dynamics between economic growth, technological efficiency, and environmental externality. Using the environmentally extended input–output model and decomposition methods, tourism carbon changes are decomposed into the economic factors of total consumption and purchasing patterns, and the production factors of industry input structure and technological improvement. This macro-level approach provides a basis for 1) assessing whether total tourism emissions increase in direct proportion to tourism consumption over time, 2) tracing the underlying determinants and their effects on tourism emissions expansion and eco-efficiency performance, and 3) comparing the carbon performance of the tourism industry against the national average. Based on the example of Taiwan, the results demonstrate that we are a long way from the goal of using the technological efficiencies of production to offset tourism-based carbon emissions.     

Tourism carbon footprint inventories: A review of the environmentally extended input-output approach

Environmentally extended input-output models have emerged as a new macro level approach to compile tourism carbon footprint inventories. Set against the traditional bottom-up method, this paper explains how environmentally extended input-output models can assist to address multiple aspects of tourism carbon management, and to review current applications for the system boundary issue, identifying variations due to carbon footprint definition, data, and the economic model itself. Recommendations are made on improving consistency of application through the tourism satellite account framework and the treatment of embedded emissions of imports. Last, we propose an agenda to integrate its procedure into national systems linking the sectoral carbon emissions of tourism with international climate commitments and progressing implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals.     

江西省旅游业碳达峰与碳中和研究

旅游业"双碳"目标的达成已成为实现旅游业高质量发展的关键指标之一。本文以全国生态文明示范区江西省为研究对象,在测算旅游业碳排放与碳汇的基础上,利用STIRPAT模型和GM灰色预测模型,结合不同情景对旅游业碳达峰与碳中和展开预测。结果表明：（1）2000—2019年江西省旅游业碳排放、碳汇均呈现出增长态势,碳排放由前期平缓增长转为后期快速增长,碳汇则为持续平缓增长,20年间两者的年均变化率分别为21.09%和9.11%。（2）旅游业碳排放强度将对江西省旅游业碳达峰的实现产生重要影响,在基准情景、中等情景和低碳情景中,江西省实现旅游业碳达峰的时间差异较大,分别约为2035年、2030年和2025年。（3）预测江西省未来旅游业碳汇将呈现稳定增长趋势,在采取低碳情景的相关政策下,江西省旅游业能够在2060年之前实现碳中和。建议江西省旅游业从确保旅游碳减排和推进旅游生态化两方面采取措施,以顺利实现"双碳"目标。     

城市旅游业CO_2排放态势及旅游业低碳化发展模式

城市是旅游活动CO2排放的主要集中地。基于旅游者消费视角,文章以深圳市为例,对其2001~2011年旅游业碳足迹态势进行分析。结合脱钩理论和Kaya恒等式,以2011年为基期,模拟深圳市未来旅游业CO2排放量。研究表明:(1)深圳市近11年旅游业能源消费及CO2排放量呈逐步上升趋势;(2)旅游业能源消耗及CO2排放的变化规律与旅游业GDP、游客接待总量有着密切关系;(3)A模式惯性情景下2020年CO2排放将达到1578万t,为基期的1.92倍,与国家的承诺及旅游局的目标背道而驰;(4)B模式绝对脱钩情景下CO2排放增长为零,这是非常理想的模式,但"反增长计划"和"能源生产效率改进"两条道路都走不通;(5)C模式相对脱钩情景下CO2排放是基期的1.38倍,旅游业在维持适宜增长的同时能源消耗和CO2排放状况得到明显改善,C模式是既考虑发展权益又承担大国责任的适宜发展模式。文章最后指出,C模式的实现需要旅游产业发展战略由供给导向向需要导向转型,并采取能源替代、效率改进、技术研发、规制治理和社会创新等综合路径。     

Carbon dioxide emissions from transport in Taiwan's national parks

Transport profoundly affects energy use and carbon dioxide emissions in the tourism sector. This study focuses on five national parks in Taiwan, namely Kenting National Park, Yushan National Park, Yangmingshan National Park, Taroko National Park and Sheipa National Park, and applies a bottom-up approach to determine the amount of CO₂ emissions from domestic tourism transport in 1999–2006. The CO₂ emission factor of private car derived in this study reveals a higher value than that of previous study due to its lower load factors. Moreover, CO₂ emissions per person are different in each national park, influenced by the attributes of travel distance and transport mode. The scenario analysis indicates that CO₂ emission can be reduced by increasing load factors of transport, tourist switching from private cars to public transport and going to destinations close to their points of departure, which can be achieved by authorities through activity management, regulation control and price adjustment. This is also an adequate solution for Taiwan Government owing to the increases in transport volume and the limited tourism budget.     

Carbon tax,tourism CO2 emissions and economic welfare

This paper, using a computable general equilibrium model, presents a simulation study of the changes in carbon emissions and economic welfare which could be brought about through a carbon tax policy in China's tourism industry. Our results clearly indicate that a carbon tax policy could have a remarkable impact on tourism-related carbon emissions and economic welfare. In addition, we find those impacts would be significantly different at different times. Also, the impacts of different carbon taxes on the different sectors of the tourism industry are also quite different. Furthermore, our analysis highlights three key managerial recommendations that are relevant for Chinese tourism policy-makers. Our results also have a certain reference value for the management of other low-carbon tourism destinations.     

A framework to account for the tourism carbon footprint at island destinations

Given concerns over greenhouse gases and the role of tourism in generating such environmental externality, a consistent carbon measurement framework is needed. This paper combines principles derived from production and consumption accounting measures to better allocate the responsibility for carbon emissions. Utilizing a boundary that includes domestic tourism expenditure, inbound tourism expenditure, and local spending associated with outbound travel, this paper (a) proposes a framework to measure the domestic total carbon effect and foreign-sourced effect, and (b) applies the analytical framework to Taiwan. The empirical study indicates that the carbon emissions for domestic tourism industries, international aviation, and imports accounted for 47%, 28% and 25% of the tourism carbon footprint. It is suggested that an island's dependence on both aviation and international trade leads to a larger share of emissions outside their geographic territory with respect to tourism development.     

长江中游地区产业结构对旅游业碳排放的影响研究

基于2000~2016年长江中游地区省域面板数据,构建产业结构和旅游业发展水平综合评价指标体系,并核算出该地区旅游业碳排放量,在此基础上通过建立向量自回归(VAR)模型,运用Johansen协整检验、格兰杰因果检验、脉冲响应和方差分解工具,分析产业结构、旅游业发展与旅游业碳排放的演变特征及影响机制。结果表明:研究区产业结构和旅游业发展水平在逐步提升的同时表现出显著的区域非平衡特征;产业结构、旅游业发展和旅游业碳排放之间存在长期均衡关系,且产业结构调整对碳排放影响更大;产业结构优化在长期内有抑制碳排放增加的作用,但目前研究区技术进步对旅游业的减排效应尚未显现,未来减排空间较大。     

How Tourists and Tourism Experts Perceive Climate Change and Carbon-offsetting Schemes

This study was undertaken against the background of tourism as an active contributor to climate change, to explore how tourists and 'tourism experts' perceive climate change and forest carbon sinks as a means to offset carbon dioxide emissions. Three different surveys were undertaken in Australia and New Zealand that contained the same two questions: is climate change an issue for tourism, and would tourists be willing to participate in tree-planting to offset their greenhouse gas emissions. About half of all tourists questioned a link between climate change and tourism, but the willingness to plant a tree was surprisingly high among tourists (48%), who associated much broader benefits with trees than their function as carbon sinks. The study identified five groups of tourists that require different approaches for the development of educational campaigns. The degree to which cognitive or affective factors play a role for each group will be critical for the success of such campaigns. Tourism experts saw a changing climate as a potential threat for tourism, but did not necessarily see tourism's fossil fuel consumption and the resulting carbon dioxide emissions as a contributor to climate change.     

境外旅游业碳排放研究综述

随着全球“低碳经济”热潮的掀起,旅游业作为减碳的重要部门,其碳排放问题成为全球关注的焦点之一.文章立足旅游碳排放视角,对国外关于旅游业三大主体碳排放的影响、旅游业碳排放的公众认知、旅游碳足迹测度、碳抵消目标及具体措施等研究进行了系统梳理,并据此构建了旅游业碳排放的研究框架,提出旅游碳足迹测度及碳减排等方面值得进一步探讨的问题,深入揭示了国外相关研究动态,并为我国旅游业低碳化发展提供一定的借鉴.     

Economic Impact of Cultural Events: The Case of the Zora! Festival

In addition to their cultural and social values, cultural events have emerged as an instrument for tourism development, tourism seasonality expansion, city image improvement and boosting regional economies. By using a Social Accounting Matrix for Orange County, Florida, this study evaluates the economic impact of an event that highlights the folklore and cultural contribution of Zora Neale Hourston. Survey data from 1100 event participants were used to estimate the spending patterns of festival attendees. The two major contributions directly related to this study are (1) the use of a quantitative methodology that will put different policy options in perspective and (2) enabling researchers to study the impact of cultural events at three levels: direct, indirect and induced effects.     

中国环境规制对旅游业碳排放绩效的影响

在碳达峰、碳中和的时代背景下,合理设置环境规制强度,提高旅游业碳排放绩效对于实现旅游业高质量发展具有重要意义。基于2001—2019年中国省际面板数据,利用Super-SBM和熵值法分别测度旅游业碳排放绩效及环境规制强度,并进一步运用面板固定效应模型和面板门槛模型探讨环境规制对旅游业碳排放绩效的影响。结果表明：（1）研究期内,中国旅游业碳排放绩效整体呈缓慢上升趋势,东部地区呈波动变化趋势,中部地区处于较低水平但始终呈稳定上升态势,西部地区增长最快;中国环境规制整体强度同样呈增长态势,且表现出"东部>西部>中部"的空间分布格局。（2）环境规制与旅游业碳排放绩效之间存在先促进后抑制的"倒U"型关系,当前中国环境规制整体强度处于拐点之前。以技术创新为门槛变量,发现环境规制对旅游业碳排放绩效具有显著的技术创新双门槛效应。（3）东部、中部和西部均存在技术创新单一门槛效应。在科技创新水平的影响下,东部地区环境规制对旅游业碳排放绩效的促进作用实现飞跃;西部地区科技创新水平较低时,环境规制阻滞旅游业碳排放绩效提升;当科技创新跨过门槛后,环境规制有助于旅游业碳排放绩效提高;中部地区环境规制则始终抑制旅游业碳排放绩效增长。     

Tourism development,energy consumption and Environmental Kuznets Curve: Trivariate analysis in the panel of developed and developing countries

The study investigates the relationship between economic growth, carbon dioxide emissions, tourism development, energy demand, domestic investment and health expenditures with an aim to test the validity of the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) hypothesis in the panel of three diversified World's region including East Asia & Pacific, European Union and High income OECD and Non-OECD countries. The study covers the period of last nine years i.e. 2005–2013. The study used the principal component analysis (PCA) to construct tourism development index which is the amalgamation of number of tourists' arrivals, tourism receipts and international tourism expenditures. The results validate the inverted U-shaped relationship between carbon emissions and per capita income in the region. The results further substantiate the following causal relationships i.e. i) tourism-induced carbon emissions, ii) energy-induced emissions, iii) investment – induced emissions, iv) growth led tourism, v) investment led tourism and vi) health led tourism development in the region.     

Analysing International Tourist Flows to Estimate Energy Use Associated with Air Travel

Tourism is a major global industry and air travel is an increasingly vital component of international tourism. This paper examines the neglected relationship between tourism and aviation with regard to global environmental impacts, including energy use and greenhouse gas emissions. Based on visitor arrival data collected by Statistics New Zealand, it estimates a total energy use of 27.8 PJ resulting from international passenger air travel to New Zealand, which would increase national energy use by 6% if international air travel were included in national inventories. This energy use translates into additional carbon dioxide emissions of 1.9 million tonnes. These estimates are discussed in terms of a tourist's 'energy bill', national and international climate change policies, and with regard to the concept of sustainable tourism development.     

Using vehicle monitoring technology and eco-driver training to reduce fuel use and emissions in tourism: a ski resort case study

Ground-based transport moves more tourists than any other form of transportation and contributes c. 32% of tourism's carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions – yet remains a largely neglected area of emission/carbon management research. This study examines the value of vehicle monitoring technology (VMT) and eco-driver training as a means to improve fuel efficiency and reduce CO₂ emissions for a fleet of vehicles at the largest ski resort operation in Ontario, Canada. The VMT was installed in 14 fleet vehicles. After eco-driver training, the fleet reduced its average daily speed (?14%), hard decelerations (?55%), hard accelerations (?44%), and idling time (?2%), resulting in decreased fuel costs (?8%) and CO₂ emissions (?8%). The process requires very low capital expenditures, can pay for itself in as little as one year, and has safety paybacks. It also has valuable externalities: tourism businesses that instill sustainability awareness and values to their employees contribute to environmental prosperity generally, because eco-trained drivers also drive more efficiently in their everyday lives. This is the first known study to quantify the benefits of driver training and behavioral intervention within a tourism context, demonstrating the potential to enhance environmental sustainability while simultaneously reducing operating costs. Technicalities, issues, and future application possibilities are discussed.     

Estimating the tourism induced environmental Kuznets curve in France

Abstract

France has retained its position as the world’s favourite tourism destination. Accounting for around 83 million visitors and 4.2% of the total employment, the tourism sector in France contributes to nearly 9% of the total GDP. However, as reported by the World Tourism Organization, road and air travel related to tourism activities account for approximately 10% of the total CO₂ emissions in the atmosphere, thereby contributing to severe air pollution. Thus, initiatives are necessary to prevent environmental damage that could have a corresponding detrimental effect on the tourism industry itself and slow down the country’s economic growth. This study utilises a vector error correction model (VECM) to investigate the relationship between polluting emissions, GDP levels, and tourism flows in France to test the validity of the environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) hypothesis for the period 1995–2014. Additionally, based on a joint analysis of long-run parameters and causality links, appropriate policy strategies are proposed to promote robust and sustainable long-run economic growth.     

How to decouple tourism growth from carbon emissions? A case study of Chengdu,China

The world has witnessed unparalleled tourism growth over the past decades but accompanied by significant carbon emissions. Therefore, addressing the conundrum that is to decouple tourism growth from carbon emissions is of great significance for achieving sustainable tourism. In this paper, we extend the framework of decoupling analysis by introducing the logarithmic mean Divisia index (LMDI) decomposition model and an innovative accounting approach into the Tapio decoupling index model. The results show that (1) during the observed period, an overall weak decoupling of tourism growth from carbon emissions and different influential factors played different roles in the decoupling process and that (2) various decoupling determinants are statistically linked, and maintaining the synergistic relationship among different decoupling strategies in the tourism industry should be an important issue to governmental authorities.