Changes in grain handling catchments in Australia: an historical perspective

This paper explores some of the important issues that influence the magnitude of receival site grain catchments in Australia. Changes in grain harvests, transport and grain handling technologies and costs; changes in farming systems, crop yields and harvesting capacity; investments in roads and on‐farm storage and economies of size in grain receival infrastructure are shown in combination to affect the size of grain catchments in major grain‐growing regions of Australia over the last 30 years. The size of grain catchments that minimise growers’ costs of road transport of their harvested grain and their receival point charges in various time periods are determined. Differently shaped grain catchments are considered. The main finding is that the size of grain catchments that minimise farmers’ grain transport, off‐farm storage and handling costs since the mid‐1980s has consistently increased, principally due to lessening real costs of road transport, more on‐farm storage and economies of size in grain receival, despite higher grain yields and a greater intensity of cropping. These findings are consistent with the observed reduction in the number of receival sites in many grain‐growing regions of Australia. Site rationalisation is less evident in states where the receival network is owned and operated by a grower cooperative.     

Dynamic Relationships in the Market for Ocean Grain Freighting Services

A vector autoregressive model containing ocean grain freight rates, grain shipments, idled tonnage, new carrier deliveries and fuel prices is used to evaluate dynamic linkages in the ocean grain transport market. Dynamic relationships are of particular importance in ocean freighting months because freighting services are often contracted several months before shipment. In addition, such markets may be slow to adjust to shocks because of significant short-run fixities in shipping services. Ocean grain freight rates are found to be responsive to fuel prices and new ship deliveries, but are not affected by demand shocks. Ship idling rates are found to be sensitive to fuel prices, grain shipments and freight rates. Significant adjustment lags are revealed.     

United States and Canadian Rail Freight-Rate Structures: A Carparative Analysis

This paper applies rail freight-rate theory to U.S. and Canadian grain movements for both domestic and export destinations. In this analysis it is established that grain freight rates in the U.S. are largely determined by distance, shipment size, frequency of shipments, intermodal competition, and geographical characteristics of route origins and destinations. Freight rates, therefore, vary depending upon routes. A comparison of U.S. export rates with Canada's statutory rate revealed that the U.S. rate levels, in 1979, were 4.3 and 2.9 times higher for hauling distances of 200 and 1,000 miles respectively in the lowest-rate route; while it was about 7.8 and 7.5 times higher for the same mileage in the highest-rate route. The extent to which the U.S. experience is relevant to Western Canada depends largely on the manner in which Canada's statutory rate is revised after the scheduled review in 1985–86.     

Modelling the transportation of primary aggregates in England and Wales: Exploring initiatives to reduce CO2 emissions

Millions of tonnes of aggregates are transported across England and Wales each year, which causes constant concerns in regard to CO₂ emissions. Much of that concern arises out of the long journeys from quarries to construction sites, and the fact that the main mode of transfer is by road. The aim of this paper is to describe the construction of a spatial decision support system (SDSS) to examine the impacts of scenarios to reduce the level of CO₂ emissions. The SDSS is made up of a GIS containing a set of spatial models (including a spatial interaction model and a microsimulation model) underpinned by a detailed transport network of road and rail routes across England and Wales. The spatial interaction models are first calibrated to reproduce the existing set of flows of aggregates between quarries and local authority districts. The distance decay component is the travel distance equivalent across the road and rail networks. Based on these flows, linear models can be set up to estimate the amount of CO₂ emissions associated with the existing set of flows. Then a series of what-if scenarios are set up which look at how changes in any part of the geography of production, the level of demand in certain areas or the transport process will impact the CO₂ emissions. The paper demonstrates the capability of the SDSS in responding to the various spatial policies applied in different stages of the supply chain of the aggregates markets.     

ECONOMIES OF THROUGHPUT AND TRANSPORT BOTTLENECKS IN GRAIN DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

In this paper, a model is presented which shows the relationship between country grain storage costs and transport bottlenecks that exist in the harvest period. It is shown that transport bottlenecks limit the amount of grain that can be transported from receival points in the peak receival period. This constraint means that the cost of operating country receival points is high because the turnover of storage capacity is limited. However, system costs can be reduced by focusing the peak transport task at sites that are less intensive users of scare transport capacity. This allows more grain to be transported out of the system in the peak period, decreasing the need for costly long term storage at country sites. In the longer term, differences in the intensity of transport use means that optimal levels of investment in storage capacity (relative to grain receivals) will differ between sites. Relatively more storage should be constructed at sites that are intensive users of transport capacity (eg. those sites that are furthest from the port). Less storage capacity is needed at sites that are less intensive users of transport because a large depot-to-port transport task will be concentrated at these sites in the peak period.     

The present and future land requirements of logistical activities

The dominant logistical activities of storage, freight transport and materials handling require substantial amounts of land. It is estimated, for example, that in 2006 warehousing occupied around 23,500 ha in England and Wales. This paper examines the changing demand for land from the logistics sector. It begins by classifying logistics-related land uses and reviewing available statistics from government sources and property consultants, most of which apply to warehousing. Recent trends in warehouse development are discussed, particularly the centralisation of floorspace in a smaller number of larger distribution centres. Previous attempts to forecast the future land requirements of logistics have assumed a close correlation between warehouse floorspace and economic growth. This paper argues that this relationship is likely to be distorted by several factors over the next few decades. A model is presented which shows the interaction between a range of factors likely to influence future logistics land requirements. These include the off-shoring of manufacturing, the rebalancing of logistical cost trade-offs in an era of higher oil prices and lower inventory costs, modal shift to rail and water, the growth of online retailing, advances in warehouse technology, the reconfiguration of the waste supply chain and the adaptation of logistical systems to the effects of climate change. The main section of the paper examines the possible effects of each of these factors on the amount of land that will be needed to support logistical activities, and its spatial distribution.     

An Update on Regulatory Change in the Canadian Grain Handling and Transportation Industry

We examine the latest process of policy change in the Canadian grain handling and transportation industry. The first part of the paper focuses on how the issue of market power in grain transportation and the subsequent lack of accountability for agricultural shippers were addressed in the initial Estey/Kroeger reviews. Considering the recently published government report on Canadian transportation regulation, the latter part of the paper briefly describes a set of regulatory models for the rail industry and their potential applicability to Canada.
Les auteurs analysent les plus récents changements apportés aux politiques qui régissent la manutention et le transport du grain au Canada. Dans la première partie de leur article, ils expliquent comment les études initiales d'Estey/Kroeger abordaient l'emprise des transporteurs sur le marché et le peu de comptes qu'ils rendaient aux expéditeurs de grain. Dans la seconde, ils décrivent brièvement plusieurs modèles concernant la réglementation de l'industrie ferroviaire et la possibilité de leur application au Canada à la lumière du rapport sur la réglementation des transports récemment rendu public par le gouvernement.     

Agriculture,transportation, and the COVID-19 crisis

In this short paper, I assess how COVID-19-related disruptions in transportation services, as well as new demands for transportation services, could impact Canadian agricultural supply chains. The brief analysis reveals that agricultural access to bulk ocean freight, rail movement, and trucking has generally improved in the pandemic, bolstered by the reduced demand for these transportation services by other sectors of the economy. The intermodal containerized movement of grains and food products has seen some disruption from the lack of empty containers in North America. The widespread consumer adoption of physical distancing measures has vastly increased the demand for retail food pickup and delivery services to the point where these services are being rationed by long wait times. From a policy perspective, there is an apparent need for (a) continued supply chain monitoring and industry engagement, (b) the proactive development of strategies to deal with absenteeism and other potential threats to the supply chain, and (c) an assessment of the economic and health merits of providing additional public resources to provide greater access to grocery pickup and delivery services.     

The impact of transport-and transaction-cost reductions on food markets in developing countries: evidence for tempered expectations for Burkina Faso

Reductions in transport and transaction costs are expected to have a major effect on the functioning of food markets in developing countries. For Burkina Faso, this is a relevant issue as it may have important consequences for the food markets in urban and rural deficit areas. A partial equilibrium model is presented to analyze the short-term effects of reduced costs on price formation, inter-regional cereal trade, and farmers' and traders' storage strategies. Our results show that the high expectations with regard to the direct effects of cost reductions on food prices and food availability require some nuance. The effects of a reduction of transport costs will be small. Moreover, also the unintended negative consequences on the competitive position of farmers and traders in other regions that do not profit from road construction should be taken into account. Finally, it is concluded that only if transport and transaction costs are reduced simultaneously, will both the consumers and farmers benefit significantly.     

Grain Transportation In Canada: Some Critical Issues And Implications For Research*

This paper brings attention to important issues bearing as grain transportation in Canada and research implications. Critical issues considered are: the grain delivery quota system, grades, rail line abandonment, export port problems and potentials, new grain transport technology and rate regulation. While a number of improvements are suggested the need for a hard objective evaluation of the total grain transportation system is strongly stressed, so as to develop an optimum system.     

世界铜产业集中度分析

本文通过对铜资源的国家和公司集中度进行分析,阐明铜市场已经形成较高的产业集中度和垄断程度,呈现以资源垄断和供需重心相分离的世界矿业新格局,但与铝、镍、铁矿石的产业集中度对比,铜行业垄断相对较低,市场进入壁垒相对较低。     

Evaluating the benefits from transport infrastructure in agriculture: a hedonic analysis of farmland prices

Access to transport infrastructure generates a range of benefits to the agriculture sector; many of which are difficult to measure directly. In this study, we use hedonic regression analysis of farm‐level data to examine the contribution of transport infrastructure to the value of farmland traded between 2009 and 2011 through its impact on farm productivity. We show that a one per cent reduction in the cost of transportation between farms and ports leads to a 0.33 per cent increase in land prices, and there is no significant difference between rail and road transportation at the aggregate level. Moreover, the benefits generated by particular types of infrastructure services vary between industries and with farm size, suggesting there are multiple channels through which public infrastructure influences agricultural production. Our findings help to inform future investment decisions in Australia and in other countries by providing new evidence regarding the benefits of existing transport infrastructure.     

CENTRALIZED PRAIRIE GRAIN COLLECTION: SAVINGS RELATED TO MARKET EFFICIENCY

A great deal of controversy and debate has arisen as to how many grain delivery points should be maintained to serve the grain growing areas of the Prairies. Many proponents for a change in the system have opted for a need for centralization. In this study, changes in the grain collection system are analyzed for a small region of Saskatchewan using a total of farmers' trucking and storage costs, road costs, elevators' and railways' costs. A modified Stollsteimer model was used to determine the effect on systems cost (sum of the five costs) as the number of grain collection points changed. Centralization of the system tended to reallocate costs from elevator and rail, to farm storage, trucking and road components. Elevator efficiency, to a major extent, determined the number of delivery points required. For the existing system (in 1974) the optimum number of points were estimated to be 80 (of a total of 178). For various alternatives examined, the optimum number varied between 46 to 107, under the existence of the Crowsnest Freight rates. The study suggests that a highly centralized system, (such as that consisting of up to five points for the study area, equivalent to 25 for the province) would increase the total costs of grain handlings and transportation. II y a eu beaucoup d'opinions et de discussions au sujet des centres de livraison de grains qui devraient etre maintenus en service dans les régions de cultures de grains des “Prairies”. Beaucoup de gens favorables à un changement du système sont partisans de la nécéssité d'une centralisation. Dans cette étude, les changements dans le système de collecte des grains sont analysés pour une petite partie du Saskatchewan en utilisant les coûts de transport et de stockage payés par les fermiers, les coûts de transport par chemin de fer et par route, ainsi que les coûts des élévateurs. Un modèle “Stollsteimer” modifyé a été utilisé afin de déterminer les effets sur le système de coûts, lorsque le nombre de centres de livraison de grains variait. Une centralisation du système tend à redistribuer les coûts des élévateurs et des transports par chemin de fer vers les. trois autres composantes (stockage et transport payés par les fermiers et le coût de transport routier). II est clair que l'efficacité des élévateurs, en majeure partie, détermine le nombre des centres de livraison requis. Pour le système existant en 1974, le nombre optimal de centres était estimé a 80 (sur un total de 178). En fonction de la prise en considération de plusieurs variantes et en utilisant le système des prix “Crowsnest Freight rates”, le nombre optimal variait de 46 à 107. l'étude suggère qu'un système hautement centralisé (équivalent à un maximum de cinq centres pour la région étudiée et a vingt-cinq centres pour toute la province) augmenterait le coût total de transport et de maniement des grains.     

Pricing of Rail Branch Line Services

The deterioration of the extensive branch line network of the railway system in western Canada can be attributed to initial overbuilding by the railways and to regulations retarding and/or prohibiting branch line abandonment despite economic pressures for a rationalized system. The problem is further aggravated by the statutory grain rate structure, which does not differentiate between branch line and nearby main line origins. Consequently, farmers are not forced to evaluate relative rail transport costs associated with delivery options. Pricing rules, consistent with economic efficiency criteria, for financing branch line service are specified in this paper.
Le réseau ferroviaire des lignes d'embranchement dans l'Ouest du Canada est en très mauvais état. Ceci s'explique par une trop forte densité de construction ferroviaire et par les reglementations retardant et/ou interdisant /abandon des lignes d'embranchement. bien que les pressions économiques dictent un sysfème plus rationnel. Le probleme est accru par la structure du tarif du grain imposé par la loi qui ne distingue pas entre ligne d'embranchement et ligne principale. En consequence, les agriculteurs n ont pas à estimer le coût relatif du transport par train associé aux livraisons. On mettra ici en relief la politique des prix compatibles avec des crières d'efficacitééconomique et destinès à fmancer les lignes d'embranchement.     

The construction of a HSR network using a ranking methodology to prioritise corridors

The construction of new high-speed rail (HSR) lines, in a climate of financial instability since the onset of the global crisis of 2007–2008, has reopened the debate among the scientific community. Support for the new projects is facing serious concerns over the extremely elevated costs of high-speed and the ability of today's governments to fund or co-fund these systems. This is the main reason the assessment of methodologies to prioritise the construction of new high-speed rail (HSR) corridors has recently become an important issue for transport planners in countries like the U.S. where HSR does not exist.The literature on ranking tools for prioritising HSR corridors is practically non-existent, even in Europe. In 2009, a new ranking methodology was developed and applied to 30,000 city pairs in the U.S. to determine their suitability for high-speed rail investment. As none of these lines has been constructed and none of them are in operation, this methodology has not been validated. The main objective of this paper is to analyse, validate and improve this ranking tool using data from a current HSR network: the Spanish one. Results show the consistency of the model as a preliminary approach to ranking pairs, mainly for the top first O–D relations; however the model fails to discriminate clearly between secondary groups of corridors. These deficiencies are chiefly due to the type of variables used by the model which ultimately, after improved, would provide policymakers with a useful tool when planning the construction of a new HSR network.     

甘肃省杂粮种业现状、存在问题与发展策略探讨

[目的]甘肃省农业气候资源丰富,适宜种植的杂粮作物品种较多,但其杂粮种业发展存在诸多与现代农业不相适应的问题,严重制约了杂粮产业的发展,因此急需提出针对甘肃省特色杂粮种业发展的策略。[方法]文章通过实地调研与文献分析,全面系统地分析了杂粮种业的特点和存在问题,并提出了甘肃省特色杂粮种业的发展策略。[结果]调研发现,甘肃省杂粮种子产值高达2亿元以上,其种子研发体系正在完善,商业化速度逐步加快,市场前景广阔。但仍存在杂粮种业缺乏长远规划,杂粮作物种子市场尚不健全,缺乏育繁推一体化的种子企业,种子信息网络及监管机制不健全;育种创新能力有待提高,品种布局不尽合理;杂粮作物品种保护意识不强,对知识产权重视程度不够等诸多问题。因此需要充分发挥甘肃省自然气候生态特点,挖掘优势特色杂粮作物,整合资源,构建杂粮作物育种创新技术体系;建立健全杂粮种子质量监控体制机制;培育现代杂粮种业龙头企业和现代化销售网络等发展策略。[结论]甘肃杂粮作物种业具有广阔的发展空间。     

Single Desk Selling by the Canadian Wheat Board: Does It Have an Impact?

The Canadian Wheat Board justifies its monopoly control over the marketing of barley on the basis of single desk selling. It argues that single desk selling raises the pooled price that farmers receive for their barley over a situation where the Canadian Wheat Board does not have monopoly control over the marketing of prairie barley. Carter (1993b) argues that the Canadian Wheat Board's pricing strategies are suboptimal and the Canadian Board cannot act prices farmers receive. This paper tests the implications of the Canadian Wheat Board's conclusions and Carters conclusions using feed grain prices. The results indicate that Canadian Wheat Board single desk selling has no impact on prices. These results indicate that Carter's analysis is more consistent with the data than is the Canadian Wheat Board's analysis.     

“This is what we did last time”. Uncertainty over landscape analysis and its procurement in the Swedish road planning process

In some European countries, landscape analysis has long been used in support of large-scale planning or major projects such as new trunk roads and mainline rail routes, in line with both the UN's Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment and the European Landscape Convention. Some countries, however, lack a regulatory framework for what should be analysed, how a landscape analysis should be conducted, or even how it should be procured. Sweden is one such country. The research project on which this article is based uses in-depth interviews with twelve key Swedish officials to consider landscape analysis issues in the planning and procurement of road and railway infrastructure. The findings point to the fact that skilled transport planners are not entirely comfortable with the current situation, and the way landscape analysis is handled in daily planning practice varies enormously. For example, nearly all the respondents believe that the way formal landscape analyses are procured is important, not least to ensure quality, yet at the same time they are rarely commissioned separately, even when this is explicitly stipulated by the regulations. There is no generally accepted notion of what ‘landscape’ might be, and the terms in which respondents describe the landscape do not correspond to the official landscape terminology as set down in the ELC.     

Derived Demand for Refrigerated Truck Transport: A Gravity Model Analysis of Canadian Pork Exports to the United States

Gravity models have a long history in the empirical analysis of trade flows and market penetration, but lack a strong economic foundation. This paper demonstrates that the gravity model can be reconciled with existing economic theory within the framework of an interregional trade model. An empirical gravity model of interregional trade is specified for Canadian pork exports to the United States. The estimated results show that, among other things, demand for transport is highly elastic, suggesting that pork producers and truckers have a mutual interest in exploring means to lower freight costs. Finally, the gravity model is used to identify potential markets for each of the five major exporting provinces. The Canadian pork industry has its best opportunity for further penetration in Illinois, Texas, New York and New Jersey.     

Factors and scenarios affecting a farmer’s grain harvest logistics

This paper explores how changes in Australia’s grain industry supply chains are likely to impact on the nature and profitability of an Australian farmer’s grain harvest logistics. A simulation model is used to show how receival site rationalisation, cheaper on‐farm storage, larger trucks, higher‐yielding crops and new harvest technologies, separately and in combination, affect the nature and profitability of a farmer’s grain harvest logistics. Applying the model to a typical Australian grain farm shows that many of these changes unambiguously advantage the farm business, and often, the combination of these changes increases a farmer’s harvest profits by at least 10 per cent. For many farmers, the task of efficiently designing and managing harvest logistics will be an increasingly difficult yet important series of choices due to the range of storage options, grain pathways, crop portfolios and market opportunities that are arising. A farmer’s decisions about cost‐effective on‐farm storage and transport, and their judicious use, will be a key contributor to additional profit in future years.