Evaluating the Implementation of a Mandatory Dual Reporting System: The Case of Indonesian Local Government

Informative and transparent financial information in the public sector is crucial for improving public sector management and eradicating corruption. Given this, Indonesia has reformed its public sector accounting, reporting and accountability systems by implementing a dual reporting system known as ‘cash towards accrual’, following similar reforms in developed countries. Drawing on the experience of five local governments (districts) in Indonesia, this study finds that the implementation of the dual reporting system has helped local governments to produce transparent and informative reports. However, the accrual‐based contents of the dual reports produced by the new reporting system are underused for decision making. In addition, there has been a significant increase in costs associated with the implementation of the new accounting regime in the jurisdictions studied. The study also finds that the ability of the users to use information generated by the new accounting system is more important than just a legal and mandatory requirement to use the new system.     

Annual Reporting and Accountability by Municipalities in Canada: An Empirical Investigation*

Prior research regarding reporting and accountability by local governments in several countries has questioned the value of traditional annual reporting and the level of accountability to the public. This article reports on comparable research for local governments throughout Canada. The disclosure index methodology is used to evaluate the quality and quantity of information published in the annual reports and in the financial statements of Canadian local governments in 2003 with a comparison in 2005. Although all municipalities published audited financial statements, less than one‐third of municipalities published a comprehensive annual report in 2003. The results show an overall low disclosure index with significant improvements in 2005 compared to 2003 and significant differences across the country. The results, largely consistent with previously published international studies, raise questions about local government accountability and about the conceptual framework for local government reporting.     

将对未来的估计包含在今天的财务报表中

本文阐释了将对未来的估计包含在今天财务报表中的方式,而不是为什么应当将对未来的估计包含在今天财务报表中的问题。在今天的财务报表中包含对未来的估计并不是一个新概念,但用处却日益增加。这主要是因为会计准则制定机构认为,反映当前经济状况、并根据对未来的预期更新的对资产和负债的计量方式,将产生有利于做出经济决策的更为有用的信息,这正是财务报告的目标所在。这也是会计准则制定机构关注公允价值会计的原因。如何将对未来的估计包含在财务报表中,取决于资产和负债的计量属性,以及从财务报告角度对资产和负债的定义。现行资产和负债的定义取决于确定产生预期经济利益流入或流出的过去交易或事项,对于预期经济利益流入,还需要关注对预期的控制。因此,并不是所有预期经济利益的流入或流出都予以确认。附注披露能够帮助财务报表使用者理解已经在财务报表中确认的估计,并提供尚未确认估计的相关信息。将对未来的估计更多地包含在今天的财务报表中,将会产生与目前反映的收益有所不同的收益计量方式,但值得讨论的是,这种计量能够对经济决策提供更好的信息。     

Accounting disclosure and firms' financial attributes: Evidence from the UK stock market

This paper focuses on the disclosure of accounting information in the financial statements of UK firms. The primary objective of the study is to analyse the financial characteristics of firms that provide extensive disclosures, and assess the financial impact of their motives, such as for example the need to raise equity finance. The study examines the financial attributes of firms that disclose information about key accounting issues including risk exposure, changes in accounting policies, use of international financial reporting standards and hedging practices. Firms are inclined to disclose accounting information in order to assure the market participants that their accounting policies are consistent with the accounting regulation and meet the information needs of their stakeholders. The study shows that in order to raise finance in the capital and debt markets, firms tend to provide extensive accounting disclosures. Firms that provide informative accounting disclosures appear to display higher size, growth and leverage measures. The findings also show that the disclosure of sensitive accounting information has not adversely affected firms' profitability. In fact, firms that provide detailed accounting disclosures tend to exhibit higher profitability. The implementation of international financial reporting standards enhances the quality and the comparability of financial statements; hence it promotes consistency and reliability in financial reporting and facilitates companies in raising capital internationally.     

IFRS adoption in Spain and the United Kingdom: Effects on accounting numbers and relevance

This paper examines the quantitative impact of mandatory IFRS adoption on financial reporting issued by first-time adopters. It analyses whether relevance of financial information is higher under IFRS than the information provided in financial statements prepared under local GAAP when investors have to make decisions in the capital markets. Both studies compare results in Spain and in the United Kingdom, whose accounting systems have been traditionally considered in opposite groups. The results of the research reveal that the quantitative impact is significant in both countries and, against what we expected, it is higher in the United Kingdom. We also observe that IFRS have negative effect on the relevance of financial reporting in both countries, although this effect has only been significant in Spain.     

Functional fixation: Experimental evidence on the presentation of financial information through different digital formats

This study examines whether, in the presentation of financial information, digital formats address the concern over users’ functional fixation. The accounting literature indicates that the presentation of financial information either within the financial statements or in the notes to the financial statements often creates functional fixation where users of financial statements fail to adjust for differences in accounting policy. This leads users to judge what would otherwise be identical financial situations as being different due to the different accounting policies and methods adopted. It has been suggested that the use of digital formats in presenting financial reports may overcome functional fixation. Using an experimental design involving accountants in public practice, the results indicate that the use of digital formats to present financial reports does not fully overcome the issue of functional fixation in the processing of financial information. Although the participants were able to identify and extract relevant information, irrespective of whether or not the information was presented within the financial statements or in the notes to the accounts, the evidence indicates that functional fixation remained when the participants made final decisions based on available information. This suggests that functional fixation may not be caused by access to or extraction of information but by the level of perceived significance based on where the information is reported in the financial statements. In general, the results indicate that current technology may not be able to fully reduce functional fixation in the evaluation of financial information prepared in accordance with different accounting policies and methods.     

The quality and conservatism of the accounting earnings of local governments

Our aim is to provide insight into the usefulness of accounting earnings for measuring the economic performance of local governments across Australia. Specifically, we explore whether (i) accrual accounting provides useful information, and (ii) earnings of local governments are conservative. We find that accrual accounting by local governments provides useful information as measured by the ability to predict one-year-ahead operating cash-flows. We find no conservatism in the financial reports of the average local government. This, we posit, is due to a lower level of demand for high-quality accrual-based financial reports from these entities. Consistent with this argument, both the quality of accruals and the degree of conservatism increase for local governments for which we predict a demand for higher-quality financial reporting.     

基于事项凭证的会计报表生成流程探析

在转轨经济时代，会计报表依然承载着记录会计信息的历史使命，而信息使用者则愈加关注会计信息的具体内容，事项信息的地位逐渐提升，使得会计报表的生成流程有待改进。本文基于传统会计核算流程的缺陷之处，并结合目前XBRL财务报告体系中的启示，对基于事项凭证的会计报表生成流程进行了探讨，为事项信息的充分运用提供合适的平台。     

表外披露性质解读及其启示:剩余控制权视角

本文从剩余控制权视角对表外披露进行解读:从信息生产和提供来看,经营者会计信息的剩余控制权更多地体现在表外披露信息上;从市场监管来看,表外披露规定体现了各国证券监管机构对证券市场的剩余监管权。这对理解现行财务报告模式及其发展有重要的意义。     

DEVELOPING A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR CENTRAL GOVERNMENT FINANCIAL REPORTING: INTERMEDIATE USERS AND INDIRECT CONTROL

This paper argues that the search for external users of public sector financial reports, and for decisions for which users might plausibly need information that could feasibly be provided in general purpose financial statements, has failed empirically and theoretically. The implications for the construction of a conceptual framework for public sector financial reporting are examined. It is suggested that'intermediate'users operating in an environment of'indirect control'might form an appropriate basis for a conceptual framework. Some tentative observations about such a framework are made and its application in accounting for central government agencies is explored.     

Cash Flow Accounting and Liquidity: Cash Flow Potential and Wealth

The persistence of a minority interest in ‘cash flow accounting’ alongside the dominant financial reporting pattern that gives cash flow statements a distinctly secondary role in the line-up of flow statements suggests that something is missing from the analyses of the interested parties. The major theme of this paper is that users rely on historical cash flow reporting for information relevant to projecting enterprise liquidity in the short run, and on financial statements based on accrual-deferral accounting for information relevant to their interest in wealth and income. An explicit distinction between the two accounting objectives (providing information for use in assessing future enterprise liquidity and providing information for use in assessing enterprise wealth and income and performance against investors' augmentation-of-wealth objective) is recommended as a basis for clarifying the issues. That distinction suggests the value of two quite different, but related, sets of data: historical cash flows and stocks and flows of cash potentials.     

Accounting for government guarantees: perspectives on fiscal transparency from four modes of accounting

Government guarantees are increasingly important as a policy instrument in public infrastructure investment and to assist the banking and financial sectors following the global financial crisis. This paper analyses how different modes of accounting characterize such guarantees in the contexts of public sector financial reporting, statistical accounting, budgeting and long-term fiscal projections. Guarantees are difficult to specify for accounting treatment and consistent conceptualization of liabilities. These difficulties make it attractive for governments to treat obligations as off-budget and off-balance sheet contingent liabilities, rather than recognize them in financial statements and statistical accounts. Miller and Power’s territorializing, mediating, adjudicating and subjectivizing roles of accounting are utilized to analyse the reporting of UK government guarantees. Provisioning for guarantees is complex in financial reporting statements and often absent in national accounts, a deficiency which Eurostat has attempted to address by devising the concept of standardized guarantees and by securing more disclosure of contingent liabilities. There is potential for future research especially where there is greater mediation between the four modes of government accounting.     

Examining dual accounting systems in Europe

After adoption of International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) for consolidated financial statements by European-listed companies, a number of European countries still require the use of local standards in the preparation of legal entity financial statements. This study investigates whether this requirement can be explained by a low demand for high-quality financial reporting and an orientation of accounting toward the fulfilment of regulatory needs in these countries. Specifically, using accounting quality as an indicator of the focus of accounting on capital providers' needs, we compare accounting quality between countries permitting and prohibiting the use of IFRS in individual financial statements. Consistent with our expectations, we find that countries requiring the use of local standards in the preparation of legal entity financial statements exhibit a significantly lower level of accounting quality, both prior to and after IFRS adoption. We interpret these results as evidence that these countries have local standards more oriented toward the satisfaction of regulatory needs, rather than investors' needs. Furthermore, since differences in accounting quality persist after the implementation of IFRS, results suggest that firms in these countries face a lower demand for high-quality financial reporting.     

Assessing financial reporting comparability across institutional settings: The case of pension accounting

The drive for comparability of financial information is to enable users to distinguish similarities and differences in economic activities for an entity over time and between entities so that their resource allocation decisions are facilitated. With the increased globalisation of economic activities, the enhanced international comparability of financial statements is often used as an argument to advance the convergence of local accounting standards to international financial reporting standards (IFRS). Differences in the underlying economic substance of transactions between jurisdictions plus accounting standards allowing alternative treatments may render this expectation of increased comparability unrealistic. Motivated by observations that, as a construct, comparability is under-researched and not well understood, we develop a comparability framework that distinguishes between four types of comparability. In applying this comparability framework to pension accounting in the Australian and USA contexts, we highlight a dilemma: while regulators seek to increase the likelihood that similar events are accounted for similarly, an unintended consequence may be that preparers are forced to apply similar accounting treatment to events that are, in substance, different.     

Performance reporting: a comparative study of British and Irish charities

The concept of accountability seems inextricably linked with the view that accounting should provide information to satisfy the information needs of users. The user-needs model is now well established as a useful basis for a conceptual framework for charity reporting, and annual reports are recognised as key documents in the discharge of accountability to external users. It has been suggested that both financial information and also performance information should be disclosed to aid the discharge of accountability. However, previous empirical work conducted in Britain found that while audited financial information was most frequently disclosed by charities, users viewed wider performance information as being of greater importance. No comparable work has been conducted in Ireland. This paper focuses on information outside the financial statements and seeks to identify the type and extent of the reporting of performance information by charities in both Britain and Ireland. The main findings of the research are: performance reporting by British charities, although limited, is considerably better than that of their Irish counterparts; performance reporting by British charities has increased over time; and large charities (both in Britain and Ireland) provide more extensive performance information than small charities. These findings are discussed in both the context of accountability and in terms of conceivable economic incentives for disclosure. In addition, possible reasons for lower disclosure rates by Irish charities are explored.     

Are Financial Reports Useful? The Views of New Zealand Public Versus Private Users

This study reports on surveys conducted with users of financial reports in New Zealand. We compare findings for users of reports of two types of for‐profit entities, namely those with public accountability (public entities) and those with no public accountability (private entities). The findings indicate that both types of users have similar perceptions regarding the usefulness of financial statements, with the income statement and balance sheet rated as the most useful components. Furthermore, both types of users, especially private users, perceive financial statements as the most important information source for decision making. Public users have a greater interest in supplementary information than private users. The findings of this study contribute to the debate around differential reporting for private companies and have policy implications with regard to the user‐needs approach to accounting standard setting.     

User Requirements for Not-For-Profit Entity Financial Reporting: An International Comparison

This study investigates the not-for-profit (NFP) external financial reporting regulatory environments of the US, the UK, Canada and New Zealand and compares them with that of Australia. It finds a lack of clarity in the definition of a NFP entity under Australian accounting standards. The study also identifies various types of information that earlier research and the guidance in other countries suggest are useful to the users of NFP entities' financial statements. This information is not currently required under Australian accounting standards.     

User Requirements for Not-For-Profit Entity Financial Reporting: An International Comparison

This study investigates the not-for-profit (NFP) external financial reporting regulatory environments of the US, the UK, Canada and New Zealand and compares them with that of Australia. It finds a lack of clarity in the definition of a NFP entity under Australian accounting standards. The study also identifies various types of information that earlier research and the guidance in other countries suggest are useful to the users of NFP entities' financial statements. This information is not currently required under Australian accounting standards.     

会计职能·财务报告性质·财务报告体系重构

本文针对次贷危机以来会计领域关于非历史成本会计的讨论与争论,从会计职能与会计目标的讨论切入,提出会计的核心价值仍然是维系人类社会的相互信任。在此基础上,论文提出重构多重目标的财务报告模式,其中,基本财务报表仍然以历史成本为基础,满足经济社会信任需求;其它财务报告"按需订制",满足不同使用者的差异化需求,可以采用非历史成本计量属性。     

论企业财务报告的性质及其信息的基本特征

本文研究主体(企业)财务报告的性质与特征,本研究必须区别财务报表和其他财务报告(含财务报表附注),中心和核心信息是由财务报表提供的,而外围和补充信息则由其他财务报告提供。上述财务报告的两部分的性质与特征有一些差别。财务报表是以过去的交易和事项为基础,是以有力的客观而可稽核的证据来支撑,它必须遵照会计准则并经过注册会计师的审计。所有涉及编制财务报表的会计程序都是确认与计量的运用,财务报表的内容仅限于财务报表要素,因此财务报表表述实际的事实。在很大程度上,提供一家企业经济活动,确切描绘的图像。相反,其他财务报告是以报告日为基础,而不是以交易和事项为基础,它运用估计、判断和模型,在很大程度上捕捉不确定性,这些不确定性可能提供财务和其他经济信息有助于使用者作出决策。总之,这两个部分都是完全必需的。但是在财务报告中,报表是中心,其他财务报告则是补充。