基于购买力平价的我国地区间收入差距

区域发展差距是地理学研究的经典命题,全面建成小康社会时期,保障和改善民生成为社会建设的重点,居民真实收入的差距也成为区域发展差距研究关注的内容。对于区域发展差距的研究通常使用名义指标(GDP、人均GDP、可支配收入等)进行测度,然而物价水平的差异导致不同地区的名义收入存在被高估或低估的现象,需要用更合理的真实收入指标来衡量区域发展差距。针对当前名义收入不能反映居民实际收入的客观事实,文章借鉴购买力平价(Purchasing Power Parity)理论,从购买力的角度测算各地区的实际收入水平差距。结果表明:1通过购买力平价可以得出用来比较同一时期、不同地区之间综合物价水平的空间价格指数(Space Price Index),用于消除地区之间物价水平的影响,将名义收入转换为实际收入;2综合考虑收入和物价两个因素,居民的实际收入差距要小于名义收入所显示的差距;3长三角地区名义收入和实际收入均是高值集聚的热点,是居民收入高、购买能力强、实际生活水平最高的区域,西南部分地区则由于名义收入水平较低、物价水平较高,是实际发展最落后、居民生活水平最低的区域。     

我国地区之间实际收入差距小于名义收入差距 --加入地区间价格差异后的一项研究

影响地区间实际生活水平差异的因素包括居民名义收入和地区间价格水平差异两个方面。用价格水平对名义收入调整后才是地区间真实的收入差异。本文对我国36个城市人均可支配收入进行了价格调整,发现城市间真实生活水平的差异小于货币收入表示的名义收入差距。     

中国三大经济地带农村居民收入差距研究

文章采用基尼系数和泰尔指数及其分解方法研究了我国东中西三大经济地带农村居民收入差距问题。基本结论是:我国三大经济地带农村居民收入差距处在一个相对平均的阶段,但其差距有随时间变化而增大的趋势。基尼系数分解结果表明,工资性收入是导致基尼系数增大的最重要的因素,而家庭经营性收入则使基尼系数减小,财产和转移性收入对基尼系数影响不大。泰尔指数分解结果显示,东中西三大地带农村居民收入差距的组间贡献波幅不大,但组内贡献变化明显,三大地带内部差异是导致地区间农村居民收入差距扩大的主要原因。     

中国地区间价格水平差距趋于收敛还是发散——基于省级面板数据的单位根检验

文章使用面板数据的单位根检验方法对中国地区间价格水平差距(分别用商品零售价格指数和居民消费价格指数来衡量)的收敛性进行经验研究。结果发现:样本区间越是靠近现在,越容易得出收敛的结论,且估计的收敛速度也越快,这说明中国国内市场一体化程度正逐步加深;从两种价格指数的比较来看,以居民消费价格指数衡量的价格水平差距比以商品零售价格指数衡量的价格水平差距更难得出收敛的结论,且估计的收敛速度也慢于后者,考虑到居民消费价格指数包含更多的非贸易品,这证明非贸易品的存在是实际汇率长期偏离购买力平价的一个主要原因。     

我国地区间相对价格水平收敛性再检验——基于面板门限套利模型的经验研究

本文通过建立面板门限套利模型为地区间相对价格水平收敛的假说提供了理论支持,并为采用面板单位根检验进行收敛性检验提供了理论依据。在此基础上,本文通过测算国内地区间相对价格水平,放松了此前文献通常做出的基准年份各地价格水平相等的前提假设,并综合利用第一、二代面板单位根检验方法考察了1995—2010年我国地区间相对价格水平的收敛性。实证研究找到了较多收敛证据但也发现收敛半衰期较长,驳斥了国内市场分割愈演愈烈的判断,也承认了国内商品市场一体化进程尚未达理想程度的现实。此外,本文发现部分商品分类收敛性与其可贸易性有背离,并推测贸易性瑕疵与政策因素起了关键作用。     

中国农村地区间居民收入差距及构成变化:1995—2008年——基于基尼系数的分解

本文采用分省的面板数据对农村地区间基尼系数分解结果表明,1995—2008年,中国农村地区间收入差距总体上仍然呈现上升趋势,基尼系数上升了0.0639,但增幅出现明显减弱趋势。基尼系数变化及农村居民工资性收入对基尼系数的贡献变化显示出与经济发展阶段变化一致的含义;结构性效应已不再是农村地区间收入差异的唯一构成来源,收入集中效应对基尼系数起了明显的增加作用,工资性收入的集中效应超过了其他收入来源。这些构成来源的变化蕴含着中国面临调节地区间农村收入差距的政策机遇。     

中国城乡居民收入差距主要影响因素及其贡献率研究 ——基于全国31个省份6 937份家庭户问卷调查数据分析

本文基于全国31个省份6 937份家庭问卷调查数据,对我国城乡居民收入差距现状进行了统计测算,运用Mincer收入模型及Oaxaca Ransom分解法对我国城乡收入差距的主要影响因素及其贡献率进行实证分析。研究结果表明：我国城乡居民收入差距较大,基尼系数已超过警戒线;户主个人与家庭基本特征、人力资本、地区差异与城乡差异对居民家庭收入有显著影响;户主文化程度差异对城乡居民收入差距的贡献率最大,城乡二元结构差异、户主个人及家庭基本特征差异对城乡居民收入差距的贡献率较大,而地区差异对城乡居民收入差距的贡献率最小。在此基础上从四个方面提出了缩小城乡居民收入差距的政策建议。     

中国居民实际消费水平差距问题初探

增设消费差距指标在技术和工作层面都具有重要意义。居民实际消费水平可从消费支出和消费效用两个视角来界定，支出视角需剔除城乡地区间价格水平差异，并加入部分公共服务支出，效用视角应构建指标体系来衡量居民生活水平。支出视角的测度可从城乡、地区和群体三大维度推进。初步测度发现，各维度消费差距均显著小于收入差距，中国城乡居民实际消费水平倍差已低于1.5,地区间实际消费水平差距也比收入差距和名义差距大幅缩小。初步分析，到基本实现共同富裕时，城乡实际消费水平倍差值可缩小至1左右，地区间实际消费水平差距最大最小倍差降至2以下，变异系数降至0.2以下。建议尽快夯实统计基础进行权威测度，将居民实际消费水平差距指标纳入共同富裕评价体系。在政策导向上，应强化公共服务支出的均衡性功能，建立健全各项制度与城乡地区物价水平和实际生活成本挂钩的机制，并加大金融普惠力度更好平滑全生命周期消费。     

从基尼系数的测算看我国居民收入状况

本文分别采用四种不同的方法对全国、地区、城乡、产业基尼系数进行时序测算。测算结果表明，这四种基尼系数总体上呈阶段性特征，1998—2000年为收入差距扩大阶段，2000年的全国基尼系数、地区基尼系数略微偏大，城乡基尼系数、产业基尼系数比较适中，但这四种基尼系数都呈现持续扩大的趋势，因此政府应对收入差距应加以控制和缩小。     

中国居民信息消费的区域差距及影响因素——基于Dagum基尼系数分解方法与省际面板数据的实证研究

根据我国2000-2015年居民信息消费的省际数据,采用Dagum基尼系数分解法测算了我国居民信息消费的区域差距及演变态势,并构建动态面板模型对影响因素进行实证分析,结果表明:我国信息消费的区域差异明显但总体呈缩小趋势,东部地区的内部差距高于中、西部地区,地区间差距的贡献率在60%以上,是构成信息消费地区差异的主要原因。采用系统GMM估计的结果表明消费习惯、收入水平、信息产业发展、人口年龄结构和城镇化水平是影响信息消费的主要因素,且东、中、西部三个地区影响信息消费的因素不尽相同。     

SHORT-CUT ESTIMATES OF REAL INCOME

The United Nations International Comparisons Project (ICP) has conducted in-depth purchasing-power parity (PPP) studies of the so-called "benchmark" countries (of which there were 34 in the 1975 sample). In the absence of PPP studies of the rest of the countries in the world, the ICP team has constructed "short-cut" estimates of real income (that is, income converted from domestic currency to dollars at PPP) for the nonbenchmark countries. The idea of a "short-cut" procedure for estimating real income is to run a regression of real income on nominal income (that is, income converted from domestic currency to dollars at a market exchange rate) and other variables among the benchmark countries and then to use this regression to estimate real income for the nonbenchmark countries. The most recent ICP short-cut estimates have been based on regressions of real income on nominal income and the foreign trade ratio. The present study expands the list of candidate variables that might be included in a short-cut regression. The list includes educational attainments, the share of minerals in GDP, the trade balance, the growth of the money supply, tourist receipts, and the share of nontradables in GDP. The theory underlying the inclusion of each of these variables is discussed. Regressions are run with various combinations of these variables and some short-cut estimates of real income for 76 market economies are presented.     

PPP in the medium run: The case of Norway

Existing studies generally reject purchasing power parity (PPP) on data sets from countries that have been affected by large real shocks, including Norway. However, we offer strong evidence of PPP between Norway and its trading partners during the post-Bretton Woods period, in which the Norwegian economy has experienced numerous real shocks such as discoveries of large petroleum reserves and oil price shocks. In particular, the behavior of the Norwegian real and nominal exchange rates appears remarkably consistent with the PPP theory. Moreover, convergence towards PPP is relatively rapid; the half-life of a deviation from parity is just about 1.5 years. We show that such deviations are primarily eliminated by adjustments in the nominal exchange rate and we offer some explanations for the relatively rapid convergence towards PPP.     

The response of aggregate demand to income,money supply,and price level

The response elasticities of (nominal) aggregate demand to the price level and to other nominal variables (e.g., money supply) are both positive but smaller than one. Aggregate demand is less/as responsive to real income than/as to the price level in the short/long run. Real aggregate demand is less/as responsive to real income than/as nominal aggregate demand is to the price level in the short/long run. Some uses of these results are indicated.     

Rationality of liquidity preferences and the neoclassical monetary growth model

In the neoclassical monetary growth literature, the rationality condition in the sense of freedom from money illusion is imposed on the demand for nominal balances by assuming that this demand is homogenous of degree one in nominal income and nominal wealth. We argue that the price level should enter into this demand as a separate argument, and that the rationality condition should require that the demand be homogenous of degree one in nominal income, nominal wealth, and the price level. Then, the symmetry issue of the real purchasing power is consequential to the structure of the neoclassical monetary growth model.     

A Decomposition Analysis of Regional Poverty in Russia

The paper applies a new decomposition technique to the study of variations in poverty across the regions of Russia. The procedure, which is based on the Shapley value in cooperative game theory, allows the deviation in regional poverty levels from the all‐Russia average to be attributed to three proximate sources: per capita income, inequality, and local prices. Contrary to expectation, regional poverty variations turn out to be due more to differences in inequality across regions than to differences in real income per capita. However, when real income per capita is split into nominal income and price components, differences in nominal incomes emerge as more important than either inequality or price effects for the majority of regions.     

Decomposing growth in revenues and costs into price,quantity and total factor productivity contributions

This article employs the superlative Fisher and Törnqvist indexes for exact decomposition of growth in nominal revenues and costs. The findings confirm the well-known result that these indexes very closely approximate each other, implying that the mathematically simpler and computationally easier Törnqvist is the more practicable index. Moreover, this article's nominal growth decomposition yields all the results from the more common real growth decomposition and is also more informative for policy purposes. Application to the US agricultural sector during 1948–2001 shows that of the 3.31% average annual growth in revenues, TFP growth contributed 1.90 percentage points (pct. pts.); growth in output prices added 1.43 pct. pts.; while growth in input quantities contributed?–?0.02 pct. pts. (i.e. fewer inputs). Therefore, real output growth (or revenue growth less output price growth) was 1.88 pct. pts., revealing that TFP's 1.90 pct. pts. growth contribution was fully responsible for real output growth with fewer inputs. Since revenues measure incomes, these results suggest that policy should focus more on measures to foster TFP growth than on specific price or quantity instruments to enhance income growth.     

Manufacturing consumption,relative prices,and productivity

I study the patterns of manufacturing consumption expenditures across a broad set of countries that differ in their level of development using disaggregated expenditure and price data. The relative price of manufacturing tends to decline with income and the real share rises with income, particularly for countries in the top half of the income distribution. I find that the nominal expenditure share of manufacturing displays a hump-shape pattern with respect to the level of income per capita. I document that the income elasticities of the relative price of individual manufacturing categories lie in a wide range. However, since most categories have a negative elasticity, the average elasticity for manufacturing is negative. In addition, most aggregations of individual categories, regardless of the criteria used, yield manufacturing sub-sectors that feature a negative income elasticity of its relative price and the variation across income in nominal expenditure shares tends to mask a larger variation across income in real shares. Using a standard development accounting framework, I report large differences in productivity across countries for manufacturing categories. I also find some differences in productivity across countries for manufacturing sub-sectors, but these differences are smaller than the differences between manufacturing and services and considerably smaller than the differences across individual manufacturing categories.     

"NOMINAL" AND "REAL" INTERSTATE INCOME INEQUALITY IN THE UNITED STATES: SOME ADDITIONAL EVIDENCE

Using a good inequality index, and data on personal income and cost-of-living estimates for the period 1981–90, interstate inequality in "nominal" and "real" personal income per capita is compared. Four points are noted. First, inequality in real income is smaller than that in nominal income. Second, while the nominal-income inequality shows the well-known increase over the 1980s, real-income inequality declined during the period. Third, inequality patterns in the wage and the non-wage components of income are somewhat different. Last, even the nominal-income inequality indicates a decline in the early 1990s.     

Some tests for money illusion and distribution effects in the aggregate consumption function

The hypothesis that the aggregate consumption displays money illusion in the sense that consumers mistake an increase in nominal incomes for an increase in real incomes and thus consume more out of given real incomes in response to a rise in the price level and the hypothesis that the aggregate consumption depends on the distribution of income are tested using Finnish annual and quarterly data. The money illusion hypothesis is rejected by annual data, while it meets success with quarterly data. The hypothesis of distribution effects in the aggregate consumption is supported by annual data. Particularly, equalizing the distribution of income would increase the aggregate consumption. In view of the quality of data on personal income distribution this conclusion cannot be regarded as more than tentative.