Small and medium-sized transnational corporations: Trends and patterns of foreign direct investment

This paper provides an analysis of small and medium-sized transnational corporations (TNCs). Statistical evidence is provided on trends and patterns of foreign direct investment (FDI) by small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). There are virtually no countries for which consistent and systematic FDI data are available by firm size, but data complied by or made available to the author for the UNCTAD Programme on Transnational Corporations allow an analysis of broad characteristics, trends and patterns.FDI by SMEs is more concentrated in developed countries than that by large TNCs. However, small and medium-sized TNCs, especially those from Japan, are increasingly investing in developing countries. Although absolute size of FDI is still small, SMEs account for a large share in terms of the number of investment cases and the number of parent firms. South and East Asia became the primary host region of small and medium-sized TNCs during the 1980s and early 1990s. The industrial distribution of FDI by SMEs in developing countries is quite wide, but concentrated in electrical goods, chemicals, textiles and some services industries. SMEs also engage in non-equity investments.Transnational Corporations Affairs Officer United Nations Conference on Trade and Development Geneva, SwitzerlandThe author is grateful for advice and comments by Hafiz Mirza     

Oil Extraction and Poverty Reduction in the Niger Delta: A Critical Examination of Partnership Initiatives

The combination of corporate-community conflicts and oil transnational corporations’ (TNCs) rhetoric about being socially responsible has meant that the issue of community development and poverty reduction have recently moved from the periphery to the heart of strategic business thinking within the Nigerian oil industry. As a result, oil TNCs have increasingly responded to this challenge by adopting partnership strategies as a means to contribute to poverty reductions in their host communities as well as secure their social licence to operate. This paper critically examines the strengths and weaknesses of the different community development partnership (CDPs) initiatives employed by Shell, Exxon Mobil and Total to contribute to poverty reduction within their host communities in the Niger Delta, Nigeria. Drawing on empirical data and critical analysis, the paper argues that while the CDP initiatives by SPDC, MPN and EPNL have the potential to contribute to community development, the failure to integrate negative injunction duties into existing partnerships means that the partnerships make no difference to how oil TNCs conduct their core business operation. Consequently, CDPs have had limited positive impact on poverty reduction in the Niger Delta. The paper concludes by examining the implications of the emerging issues for partnership and poverty reduction.     

论东道国产业集群与跨国公司的直接投资:相互影响及政策建议

东道国产业集群的快速发展对跨国公司的直接投资产生了重大的影响,使得跨国公司获得了直接投资的协同竞争效应、建立了跨国公司直接投资新的区位优势、提升了跨国公司对区外出口的竞争力并且改善了跨国公司子公司在东道国的经营绩效。与此同时,跨国公司对东道国产业集群的直接投资也推动了当地集群的升级、集群治理结构的优化并整固了东道国集群的植根性。最后,本文提出了吸引跨国公司直接投资推动我国产业集群发展的具体政策建议。     

跨国公司传承母国文化的路径分析

跨国公司是文化全球化的最重要主体,模因理论可以用来分析文化传播和演化的微观路径和宏观路径。模因论对文化传承的微观路径描述是关于模因、模因复合体、载体、生存机器之间的关系问题的解释,其宏观路径是国家文化经过跨国公司实施子公司活动、商务活动以及销售文化产品活动,进而影响子公司东道国个人和组织之间的传承通道。跨国公司传承母国文化呈现出发达国家占据主动地位、欠发达被动输入文化的整体态势,但欠发达国家的传统核心文化的强势模因也对跨国公司有着明显的反作用力。     

Liberalisation and Protection under Overlapping Free Trade Agreements: Dynamic Interplay between Free Trade Agreements and Investment

Two decades into the most recent wave of regionalism many of its implications remain to be fully understood. A vast literature has explored the impacts of free trade agreements (FTAs) on investment flows, but less attention has been given to how existing patterns of investment alter FTA liberalisation. It is contended here that the dynamic interplay between overlapping FTA areas and the investment sunk in them shapes governments' and firms' positions regarding further FTA liberalisation. During trade negotiations, a country may decide to exclude a sector from FTA liberalisation to prevent (concession prevention) future FTA partners from making similar demands. Concession prevention could also occur when a foreign firm, holding a dominant market position in a host country, relinquishes liberalisation demands in an FTA between host and home countries to prevent its current position being eroded if the host country grants similar (or better) concessions to competing firms from other countries in future FTAs. Conversely, investment sunk into a country's sensitive sector in the territory of partners from previous FTAs could pre‐empt (concession pre‐emption) the protectionist position of that country when it subsequently negotiates FTAs with the investment‐source countries. These arguments were tested in the negotiations around the liberalisation of the automotive industry that Thailand and Malaysia had with Japan in their respective bilateral FTAs. The distinct interaction between investment and the FTAs in which these countries participate resulted either in entrenchment of protectionism in the sector or its liberalisation across subsequent FTAs.     

Crossing the Boundaries of Obligation: Are Corporate Salaries a Form of Bribery?

Trans-National Corporations (TNCs) pay relatively high salaries to local people in host countries. TNCs assume that such employees will accept an employeeÇôemployer relationship similar to that which exists in North America, but the obligations and personal interests that such a relationship create often directly conflict with systems of obligation already established in the host country. When TNCs do business across the boundaries of systems of obligation, corporate salaries can be seen as a form of unethical bribery. In this paper, the core case of business bribery is described consistent with the usual philosophical analysis of bribery, and the grounds for thinking bribery is unethical are made clear. The amount of a bribe is irrelevant to the ethical analysis. Bribery is distinguished from tips and grease on structural grounds. The concept of a system of obligation is defined, and examples given that show the variability of systems of obligation in host countries. Arguments are given to show that salaries paid by TNCs create obligations and personal interests which sometimes conflict with existing systems of obligation, and that such payments have the same structure as more traditional forms of bribery. The ethical issues of corporations crossing the boundaries of systems of obligations are discussed.     

新冠疫情下国际投资中公共卫生例外条款分析

新型冠状病毒肺炎疫情的全球大规模流行影响了世界范围内的公众健康,也影响了国际投资的发展。东道国采取的疫情防控措施可能会因损害外国投资者的利益而被诉至国际投资仲裁庭。国际投资协定中起初鲜有公共卫生例外条款,而晚近的国际投资协定在序言及正文中开始包含一种或几种公共卫生例外以尊重东道国的公共卫生规制权。近年来,一些外国投资者依据老旧国际投资协定而提起的国际投资仲裁涉及公共卫生问题时,东道国不得不通过援引国家警察权力、紧急状态等规定对外国投资者提出的征收补偿或者违反公平公正待遇的主张进行抗辩。虽然东道国的这些抗辩得到了部分国际投资仲裁庭的支持,但其仍存在较大的不确定性。鉴于此,在国际投资协定中纳入明确的公共卫生例外条款对于保护东道国的公共卫生规制权具有重要意义。     

A global analysis of factors impacting the intensive and extensive margins of bilateral foreign direct investment

This study investigates determinants of bilateral foreign direct investment (FDI) on both margins, the extensive margin (whether to invest) and the intensive margin (how much to invest), based on the recent structural gravity model for FDI developed by Anderson et al. (Trade and investment in the global economy. National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA, 2017). I examine a global data set comprised of 110 countries over 9 years, 2004–12. Apart from conventional gravity variables, the source country's technology capital shows a significant and positive impact on both FDI margins. Bilateral investment treaties play a significant role only in determining the extensive margin. Results on FDI stocks and FDI flows can lead to different conclusions; thus, research should consult both types of data series to find which variables have robust effects. Furthermore, breaking down the sample by country development levels reveals that FDI from less‐developed countries (LDCs) is not affected by many common variables, and thus, there is a need to develop more theories and empirical work to investigate the FDI from LDCs in particular.     

Does foreign direct investment promote institutional development in Africa?

Foreign direct investment (FDI) inflows into Africa have increased since the turn of the millennium, mainly due to FDI growth into African countries by multinational enterprises (MNEs) from developing economies. While African governments view this growth as a positive development for the continent, many governments in the West have raised concerns regarding the institutional impact of investments from developing economies. This paper examines the impact of FDI flows on institutional quality in African countries by distinguishing investments from developed versus developing economies. Previous empirical studies have found a significant relationship between FDI flows and institutional quality in African countries but regard the relationship as MNEs rewarding African countries for adopting institutional reforms. However, little attention has been paid to the reverse causality, i.e. that FDI can cause an institutional change in African countries. Using bilateral greenfield FDI flows between 56 countries during 2003?2015, we find no significant FDI effect from developed and developing economies on institutional quality in host countries. However, aggregate FDI flows from developed and developing economies have a significant positive effect on host country institutional quality but differ concerning the impact's timing. In contrast, we find no significant effect of FDI flows from China on host country institutional quality. Our results are robust to alternative measures of institutional quality.     

Foreign Direct Investment in Africa: The Role of Natural Resources,Market Size,Government Policy,Institutions and Political Instability

Data from several investor surveys suggest that macroeconomic instability, investment restrictions, corruption and political instability have a negative impact on foreign direct investment (FDI) to Africa. However, the relationship between FDI and these country characteristics has not been studied. This paper uses panel data for 22 countries over the period 1984–2000 to examine the impact of natural resources, market size, government policies, political instability and the quality of the host country's institutions on FDI. It also analyses the importance of natural resources and market size vis‐à‐vis government policy and the host country's institutions in directing FDI flows. The main result is that natural resources and large markets promote FDI. However, lower inflation, good infrastructure, an educated population, openness to FDI, less corruption, political stability and a reliable legal system have a similar effect. A benchmark specification shows that a decline in the corruption from the level of Nigeria to that of South Africa has the same positive effect on FDI as increasing the share of fuels and minerals in total exports by about 35 per cent. These results suggest that countries that are small or lack natural resources can attract FDI by improving their institutions and policy environment.     

The effect of within-country inequality on international trade and investment agreements

There is anecdotal evidence suggesting that those losing from globalization influence policy makers to decrease the openness of their countries to globalization, as evidenced by signing international trade and investment agreements. Surprisingly, this influence has never been examined empirically. This study provides novel empirical evidence demonstrating that greater within-country inequality, our proxy for 'perceived losses' from globalization, decreases countries' propensity to sign regional trade and investment agreements. Our findings support the argument that the existence of 'losers' from globalization can be detrimental for continued globalization. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first extensive econometric empirical evidence of the influence of within-country inequality on countries' willingness to sign international trade and investment agreements, as means to increase their global economic integration.     

Foreign Direct Investment Motives and Marketing Strategies in Central and Eastern Europe

Summary

Foreign direct investment (FDI) inflows are of crucial importance for the process of reintegration of Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) in the global marketplace. This paper explores the motives of foreign investors, host governments, and host companies in the FDI process taking place in CEE. The degree to which the motives of the three parties have been achieved is evaluated. The motives of foreign investors, host governments, and host companies are related to the strategic priorities of the FDI companies. The way in which these priorities have been realized is discussed. Recommendations for foreign investors' behavior in the CEE context are presented at the end of the article. The research data come from four countries: Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, and Slovenia.     

South Korea’s outward direct investment and its dyadic determinants: Foreign aid,bilateral treaty and economic diplomacy

This study investigates the factors that affect South Korean outward foreign direct investment (FDI) in developing countries. Most previous studies focus on monadic factors and do not consider how and to what extent bilateral relationships between South Korea and the host countries affect the investment decisions of Korean firms. The current study finds that interstate factors such as South Korea's international investment treaties with and official development assistance to host countries have positive effects on FDI to these countries, while presidential visits have strong and statistically significant effects on FDI only in countries located in non-Asian regions, especially the African continent. The findings suggest that the effects of bilateral relations on South Korea's FDI vary depending on the geographic location of the host country.     

Foreign investment and control of transnational enterprises

Foreign investment by transnational enterprises (TNEs) in less developed countries has been explained by the differential rates of return available to foreign capital at home and in the host country. However, an equally significant aspect of such investment is the issue of control of TNE operations in the host country. This forms the basic difference between foreign direct and foreign indirect investment. This paper addresses this issue showing that foreign direct investment is better for the host than indirect investment. We discuss how host government policy can affect the decisions of TNEs and achieve the best outcome for the host economy.     

OFDI绿色技术溢出与全球价值链升级--以中国对“一带一路”沿线国家为例

随着我国与“一带一路”沿线国家交流的加深,我国对“一带一路”沿线国家的直接投资(OFDI)规模呈增长趋势,且绿色技术溢出效应显著。为进一步推动“一带一路”沿线国家经济高质量发展,贯彻人类命运共同体理念,选择2005—2018年“一带一路”沿线26个国家的面板数据,利用基于数据包络分析法的曼奎斯特指数法(DEA—Malmquist)测算我国OFDI绿色技术溢出,实证分析其对沿线国家全球价值链参与度和地位跃升的影响,并以地区、发展程度、产业为分组依据进行分样本回归,考察OFDI绿色技术溢出对全球价值链升级的异质性影响。研究结果表明,我国OFDI绿色技术溢出显著促进了“一带一路”沿线国家全球价值链参与度和地位的跃升。尽管OFDI绿色技术溢出与全球价值链参与度和地位具有非线性关联和时序异质性,但均处于非线性曲线的上升阶段;在区际经济地理禀赋约束下,OFDI绿色技术溢出的全球价值链升级效应呈现出禀赋异质性、空间异质性、状态依存性特征。首先,与“一带一路”沿线欧洲国家和发达国家相比,我国OFDI绿色技术溢出对“一带一路”沿线亚洲国家和发展中国家的全球价值链升级效应更显著;其次,与农业和工业相比,服务业的全球价值链升级效应更显著。为实现“一带一路”沿线国家全球价值链向高端环节跃升,既要通过扩大规模、提高质量、多元发展的方式增强我国对“一带一路”沿线国家的OFDI绿色技术溢出效应,又要切实提高区际经济外向度与契约质量,加强营商环境建设,充分利用东道国禀赋优势,强化OFDI绿色技术溢出的全球价值链升级效应。     

Japanese transnational corporations' knowledge transfer to Southeast Asia: the case of the electrical and electronics sector in Malaysia

The role of Japanese Transnational Corporations (TNCs) in the economic development of the host Southeast Asian countries is at the heart of contemporary discussion on knowledge transfer. This paper is an empirical analysis of the existence of knowledge transfer from Japanese TNCs to their local suppliers in the Malaysian Electrical and Electronics sector. A logistic regression model enables to define the factors that determine the existence of knowledge transfer between Japanese affiliates and their local suppliers.     

我国对外直接投资的区位选择——基于投资动机的视角

从对外直接投资动机的视角,采用54国2003-2006年的面板数据,在对样本国聚类的基础上考察了我国对外直接投资区位选择的影响因素。发现在控制了东道国治理基础和双边贸易量后,对我国直接投资而言,发达国家的区位优势在于较高的科技水平,而发展中国家则在于丰富的矿产能源禀赋或潜在的国内市场。同时,发达国家的市场对我国直接投资并不具有吸引力,而在对一些资源丰富的发展中国家进行投资时市场因素的作用也不明显。     

Cross-border acquisitions vs. Greenfield investment: A comparative performance analysis in Greece

This paper compares cross-border acquisition with Greenfield foreign direct investment (FDI). It investigates the impact of these two FDI modes on the long-term performance of foreign subsidiaries. By focusing on the performance of the foreign affiliate, it departs from the rich survival literature and for the first time explores the precise performance of these ventures over a longer period of time. In particular, by drawing on the theory of industrial organization (IO), we empirically examine to which extent the two different forms of market entry help to explain the development of leading positions of affiliates in the host country. Our field research is based on a wide original sample of 179 manufacturing subsidiaries of foreign transnational corporations (TNCs) located in Greece. The econometric results indicate that acquisitions exhibit specific signs of excellence in terms of market share, firm size, capital intensity and product differentiation. We ascertain that at least as far as market share and capital intensity are concerned, the superiority of the cross-border acquisitions rests on both the fact that TNCs are eager to acquire the most efficient firms in the host country, and actively engage in assisting these firms in their up-grading procedures.     

A race to lower standards? Labor standards and location choice of outward FDI from the BRIC countries

Scholars argue that multinational corporations tend to locate their investment in countries with lower labor standards, but empirical results are highly inconsistent. In this paper, we investigate the effect of differential labor standards on the location choice of outward greenfield foreign direct investment (FDI) from Brazil, Russia, India and China (i.e. the BRIC countries). We find robust evidence that while there is a tendency toward the attraction of FDI by lower labor standards in developed countries, such a “race” is absent in FDI directed to developing countries. Location choice is highly path dependent upon previous trading relations between the home and the host country, which hampers the MNCs’ ability to arbitrage. Conversely, capital mobility at the industry level is found to intensify the race to lower standards.     

Managing FDI technology spillovers: A challenge to TNCs in emerging markets

Prior studies on foreign direct investment (FDI) technology spillovers have offered little guidance to transnational corporations (TNCs) on how to protect and exploit technology across borders. The present paper argues that TNCs can manage technology spillovers through selection of entry modes, selection of technologies, and selection of investment priorities in the affiliates they establish in foreign markets. A number of hypotheses are derived from theoretical analyses and are tested against firm-level data from China. The findings of the paper have significant implications for TNCs that face fierce competition from local firms in emerging markets.