Tourism development and the tourism area life-cycle model: A case study of Zhangjiajie National Forest Park, China

The conceptual framework of the Tourism Area Life Cycle (TALC) has been frequently examined since it was first proposed by Butler in 1980. However, few studies have applied the concept to national parks and other protected areas. This paper examines the applicability of the model to China's Zhangjiajie National Forest Park. In addition, both external and internal factors affecting the park's tourism development as well as the environmental, social, and economic changes of the area are also discussed. Results indicate that the park has experienced the first four stages as described in Butler's 1980 seminal paper [The concept of a tourist area cycle of evolution: Implications for management of resources. Canadian Geographer, 24, 5–12]. Currently, the park is in the consolidation stage. Both governments and the private sector are major players as catalysts for the park's tourism development from one stage to the next. While the local or even regional economy has become increasingly dependent on tourism, the park has also been experiencing noticeable transformation and loss of traditional cultures since its inception in 1982. Finally limitations to the current paper are outlined.     

Sustaining culture and seeking a Just Destination: governments,power and tension – a life-cycle approach to analysing tourism development in an ethnic-inhabited scenic area in Xinjiang,China

Set against the background of China's changing economy and its rapid rise as a major tourism provider, this paper examines the development of tourism, and tourism policies, in Kanas (Xinjiang), an ethnic inhabited scenic area in north-western China which has seen visitor numbers rise from c. 800 to c. 1 million annually from 1990 to 2013. It uses the first four stages of Butler's Tourism Area Life Cycle model (TALC) as a framework, analysing governments’ role in policy-making and implementation, and the tensions and conflicts at each TALC stage. It finds that the TALC is a useful analytical framework in China, despite its command economy, and governments’ multiple roles in tourism development. The position of cultural heritage and the characteristics of the Tuva and Kazakh ethnic minority peoples in tourism in Kanas are critically examined, as is China's concept of social harmony and progress. Social harmony is compared – and contrasted – with the emerging concept of the Just Destination in destination planning and management. The minorities are found to be weak in knowledge, capital and bargaining power, but the relationships involved are complex and still evolving. The paper is one of a JOST series on China's new tourism management policies.     

Local discourses and international initiatives: sociocultural sustainability of tourism in Oulanka National Park,Finland

National parks have become important tourist attractions and tools for regional development. New international initiatives, such as PAN (Protected Area Network) Parks in Europe, now promote sustainable tourism in protected areas. This paper examines the sociocultural sustainability of tourism perceived by local stakeholders of Oulanka National Park in northeastern Finland. The central question concerns the role of PAN Parks certification in community and tourism development. Four discourses were identified, based on 40 semi-structured interviews exploring different views on sociocultural development pertaining to tourism in the national park: (1) integrating nature-based tourism and conservation, (2) defending the rights of local people, (3) stressing the economic utilization of nature and (4) accepting tourism development and the national park. Although local stakeholders mostly have a positive perception of tourism in the park, it cannot be concluded whether the park facilitates development in a sustainable manner or not. Key problems identified are lack of participation opportunities and contradictions with traditional subsistence economies. The various positions of stakeholders in these discourses tend to influence their views on sustainability. Findings imply the necessity to monitor the distribution of benefits and burdens of park development holistically to multiple stakeholders.     

Protected area policies and sustainable tourism: influences,relationships and co-evolution

This paper explores the adoption of sustainable tourism ideas in a Park Authority's policies over a period of two decades in a developed world, category V protected area. There is only limited research on influences encouraging the inclusion of sustainable tourism ideas in protected area policies, or on relationships between sustainable tourism policies and other policy priorities. The paper departs from an approach which considers sustainable tourism policies in isolation, because potentially they are reformulations or extensions of other previous policies, or else indirect outcomes of other policies. There is assessment of influences on the Park Authority's sustainable tourism policies, and of the co-evolution between sustainable tourism policies and other policies. Such influences as government funding reductions and rising concern for community well-being affected the Authority's adoption of sustainable tourism ideas. Incorporation of sustainable tourism ideas in policies occurred gradually. It involved re-labelling established policies as well as reframing and extending those policies. It was often an indirect outcome of policy developments not focused specifically on sustainable tourism. Sustainable tourism-related policies co-evolved with, and through, policies for community well-being, actor participation, and sustainable development. The approach used here is relevant for research on policy co-evolution in other policy fields.     

Flagship Attractions and Sustainable Rural Tourism Development: The Case of the Alnwick Garden,England

This paper proposes an alternative approach to rural tourism that returns to a more traditional model of development: large, flagship attractions that act as a ‘growth pole’ for the local economy and community. It questions some of the accepted beliefs about sustainable rural tourism development current in recent years. It is based on a case study of Alnwick Garden in Northumberland, England. It suggests that, under certain circumstances, flagship or mega-attractions can not only increase substantially the number of visitors to rural areas but also, through appropriate policies and processes, can underpin the longer-term, sustainable development of those areas.     

Protected areas,tourism and community livelihoods linkages: a comprehensive analysis approach

This study explores the linkages among protected areas, tourism and community livelihoods in a rural setting. The Chobe National Park and Chobe Enclave Community Trust, Botswana, provide the context for this study. Data were collected through a community asset mapping exercise, semi-structured interviews, and published and unpublished data sources. Data were analyzed and interpreted using the community capital framework (CCF) that provided a comprehensive approach. The study identified that protected areas, tourism and community livelihoods linkages have many inter-dependent community capitals relationships. The enhancement of community capitals was facilitated by a shift from government-controlled to multi-level governance arrangements that recognize community wildlife-based tourism potential co-exist with protected areas, have influence on community livelihoods and nurture positive linkages. Results also indicate that linkages are dependent on community capitals transformation or lack thereof; the linkages have an influential effect on the whole ecosystem on which protected areas, tourism and community livelihoods operate. The study provides a new methodological approach in understanding the changing relationships among tourism, conservation and community development by expanding community capitals framework. This study's findings also inform planners, managers, and policy makers to critically evaluate the processes of change and devise interventions accordingly.     

零团费与我国出境游发展阶段的互动关系分析

零团费是我国出境游在特定阶段下出现的现象,是客源地和目的地相互作用的一种特殊表现.本文划分了我国出境游的三个发展阶段,并结合各个阶段的具体特征,分析了零团费的产生和演化与出境游各阶段特征的互动关系.在此基础上,得出零团费具有存在暂时性、形式合理性、治理长期性等三方面特征,以及只有进行标本兼治的综合治理才能根除零团费的基本结论.     

Computer Simulation as a Tool for Planning and Management of Visitor Use in Protected Natural Areas

The United Nations Environment Programme’s Principles on Implementation of Sustainable Tourism suggest that implementing sustainable tourism must include monitoring visitor use of protected natural areas and directing it to areas where the environmental and social impacts of tourism are minimised. Thus, sustainable tourism management requires information about the spatial and temporal flow of visitor use in protected natural areas to help identify potential tourism-related threats to the natural and cultural resources of an area and the quality of visitors’ experiences. Recent research has identified at least four ways in which simulation modelling of visitor use can facilitate more informed planning and management of sustainable tourism in protected natural areas, including (1) describing existing visitor use flows; (2) monitoring the condition of ‘hard to measure’ indicator variables; (3) testing the effectiveness of alternative visitor use management practices; and (4) guiding the design of research on public attitudes. The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate, using findings from studies conducted in the Inyo National Forest and Isle Royale National Park, USA, each of these four potential contributions of computer simulation to sustainable tourism management and planning. The paper concludes with an assessment of the limitations of existing applications of computer simulation to nature-based tourism and recommendations for future research.     

Networking for sustainable tourism – towards a research agenda

This paper proposes a research agenda for networking for sustainable tourism research based on a collaborative workshop of international tourism academics and researchers and an extensive review of the relevant literature. Each year, Building Excellence in Sustainable Tourism – an Education Network (BEST EN) holds a Think Tank on a topical issue in sustainable tourism education. One aim of the Think Tank is to develop a relevant research agenda that draws on the collective knowledge of participants and acknowledges the interdependent economic, environmental and social objectives in sustainable tourism. Six main areas were identified as important for a research agenda on networking for sustainable tourism and its implementation: theory, methodology and conceptual issues; actors, culture and power; lifecycle, evolution and dynamics of networks; knowledge transfer; macro-perspectives and strategic action, vision, innovation and management of networks. This paper presents and discusses these research themes in the context of a literature review on networks and networking for sustainability in tourism. It is found that substantial progress has been made in the investigation of private sector networks at the destination levels; research on networks involving public sector stakeholders and networks across sectors and levels of governance, however, remains limited.     

Social big data informs spatially explicit management options for national parks with high tourism pressures

Nature-based tourism in protected areas is an easily experienced ecosystem service that humans enjoy, but it acts as tourism pressures on ecosystem. Some park managers, however, lack an understanding of the spatial distribution and ecological impact of these pressures. We analyzed the size and spatial distribution of these pressures in Korean national parks, using visitor statistics and social big data. In addition, by overlay it with endangered species distribution data, we analyzed areas where tourism pressures and ecologically significant areas could be conflicted. The tourism pressure differed according to the individual protected areas’ characteristics. Due to the unevenness of the magnitude and spatial distribution of pressures, the ecological impacts could be spatially differentiated. This study suggests that tourism pressure may be a decisive factor affecting protected areas' ecosystems with increased visitors. Using social big data, managers can establish spatially explicit management policies that consider tourism pressures on individual protected areas.     

Why It's Good To Be Bad: The Role of Conflict in Contributing Towards Sustainable Tourism in Protected Areas

This paper examines the historic and contemporary role of one Canadian environmental non-governmental organisation (ENGO) in the operationalisation of sustainable tourism. In particular, the extent to which the ENGO has contributed to coordinated, cooperative policy development and implementation within this policy domain is examined. While coordinated policy making is widely accepted as a basis for environmentally sustainable tourism development, organisations may contribute more towards this goal by choosing not to be included, or by being excluded from, this framework of coordination. This paper uses an interorganisational relations perspective to explore the position, influence and relationships of one ENGO active within Canada's national park tourism policy domain. Implications are drawn for the implementation of sustainable tourism within protected areas.     

中国旅游经济增长动态路径的阶段性变迁识别——基于马尔科夫区制转移模型的实证分析

文章基于我国国内和国际旅游收入年度数据,在分别对其总量和增长率序列进行定量探讨后,运用双阶段马尔科夫区制转移模型,对我国旅游经济增长动态过程进行阶段性变迁识别和转移分析。结论表明：（1）随着时间的推移,国内和国际旅游收入均大体呈不断攀升的态势,国内旅游收入增长率呈U形变化,而国际旅游收入增长率呈周期性变化特征。（2）国内（国际）旅游收入维系快速（低速）增长的可能性要强于其保持低速（快速）增长的可能性,国内（国际）旅游收入维系快速（低速）增长的可能性要强于国际（国内）旅游收入。（3）无论是国内旅游收入还是国际旅游收入,当其增长率较高时,通常都会存在潜在的较大不确定性,当其增长率较低时,所面临风险冲击的可能性也较小,国际旅游收入快速（低速）增长时的波动性显著强于国内旅游收入快速（低速）增长时的波动性。（4）从近年来的发展趋势看,国内旅游收入增长率仍然具有持续攀升的强劲势头,同时也将会伴随较大的波动性,国际旅游收入增长率维持平缓低位推进的可能性较大,与此相对应的波动性较小。     

基于旅游生命周期理论的历史文化街区居民身份认同对旅游发展意向的影响研究

研究以旅游生命周期理论为基础，以武汉市9个处于不同旅游生命周期的历史文化街区为研究区域，通过质性数据分析探讨了居民身份认同对其旅游发展意向的影响，并对处于不同旅游生命周期的街区进行了比较分析。研究发现：居民身份认同主要从情感因素、经济因素、社会环境因素、旅游发展要素、文化因素等方面对其旅游发展意向产生影响；依据身份认同强弱与旅游发展意向正负的交互组合，可将居民分为4种认同-意向类型：积极拥护者、传统坚守者、经济至上者和无为参与者；在不同旅游生命周期阶段的历史文化街区，居民身份认同对其旅游发展意向的影响各异：在参与和巩固阶段街区，传统坚守者突出；在发展阶段街区，积极拥护者占主导；在巩固阶段街区，积极拥护者和无为参与者兼而有之，且二者冲突尤为激烈。最后，针对不同旅游生命周期阶段居民的类型和特征，提出了促进居民参与街区旅游发展与保护的建议。     

Environmental orientations and environmental behaviour: Perceptions of protected area tourism stakeholders

There are numerous studies in the academic literature which assert that environmental attitudes can influence the process of sustainable tourism in protected areas. To test this claim, this research was undertaken in Central Karakoram National Park, Pakistan. The purpose of the research was to examine the differences in environmental orientations of four stakeholder groups associated with protected area tourism and to determine the factors that might influence their intentions to engage in environmentally responsible behaviour. The New Ecological Paradigm scale was used to assess environmental orientations. In addition, interviews were conducted to examine the factors that impacted these orientations. The results show significant differences among the stakeholders' orientations towards the environment and multiple factors that influence stakeholders' intention to engage in environmental conservation and sustainable tourism, namely economic benefits, awareness and information, top down governance and resource use rights.     

成都市"农家乐"演变的案例研究--兼论我国城市郊区乡村旅游发展

本文通过对成都市“农家乐”经营模式、经济效益以厦对农村社会文化的影响等方面的演变轨迹的勾勒,分析了我国城市郊区乡村旅游的发展。研究发现,成都“农家乐”已朝着规模化方向发展,娱乐服务设施逐渐与度假村趋同;与此同时。在外来投资者的竞争下,本地农户经营者的效益普遍下降,“农家乐”经营的“飞地化”特征日渐突出。创新开发模式。加强政府对“农家乐”的引导和规制。成了城市郊区乡村旅游可持续发展的重要保证。     

Implementing sustainable tourism in Scotland: an interview

In China, sites categorised as UNESCO World Heritage Sites are commonly used as a means of economic regeneration through tourism development. This study is of a recent addition to the list, the diaolou (fortified tower houses) of Kaiping, Guangdong, in South China. This rural zone, characterised by past emigration and farming, is in the early stages of tourism development. The study, based on interviews and a survey, permits findings to be compared with other rural areas in China such as Hungcun and the Tangyue Arches of Bao Village in Anhui, and thus while similarities in attitudes are found, in Kaiping differences exist whereby tourism has been found to permit entrepreneurial activities while retaining an agricultural base as the “new tourism rich” employ others to continue farming. The work is contextualised within a model of evolving literature related to tourism impacts on communities. The paper explores a range of issues in sustainable tourism, including the use of tourism as a tool for social, economic and cultural development, holistic approaches to heritage tourism, and the development of glocalisation as a response to globalisation. It discusses differences in approach to heritage tourism, cultural change and commodification between western and Chinese scholars and society.     

Developing Woodlands for Tourism: Concepts,Connections and Challenges

Driven by potential economic benefits for rural communities, tourism has become an increasingly central focus of sustainable woodland management in Great Britain. Knowledge of the values and uses of woodlands for tourism, and the impacts of woodland management on tourism is, however, limited. This paper outlines qualitative research in three study areas which used in-depth interviews and discussion groups to engage with tourism providers to explore these issues. It argues that woodlands are an important constituent of ‘countryside capital’, with woodlands” imagery and accessibility, and their natural and man-made resources used directly and indirectly by tourism enterprises. A landscape-scale approach to tourism planning and development is advocated to ensure a more holistic use of woodlands for tourism. Critical issues are identified as being strategy and integration, local engagement, sharing of information, resources, costs and benefits between stakeholders, and policies and practices to stimulate innovation and growth.     

Determining the impact of information on rural livelihoods and sustainable tourism development near protected areas in Kwa-Zulu Natal,South Africa

It is well known that tourism can bring problems for poor rural people in less developed countries. This paper describes a pilot study of five rural communities in the vicinity of or within a South African protected area, the iSimangaliso Wetland Park. Within the context of sustainable tourism development and the sustainable livelihoods approach, it explores whether access to information and to education and training has had impacts on the survival of these communities. The information provision role of governing authorities is also investigated regarding the preservation of the site and also for ownership and land claims. The results indicate that lack of access to relevant information can be a prime reason why rural communities cannot break out of the poverty cycle, and they suggest it is imperative to train and educate survivalist communities so that they can mobilise themselves economically, including through local tourism development. The demonstrated significance of lack of information provision, training and education represents a new contribution to the field. The study concludes that, where it is a matter of survival for rural communities, a sustainable livelihoods approach may be more appropriate and attainable than a sustainable tourism development approach.     

中国旅游产业结构变迁对旅游经济增长的影响

文章从产业结构合理化和高级化两个维度考察了中国旅游产业结构变迁的特征,通过构建计量模型分析了旅游产业结构变迁对中国旅游经济增长的影响,并验证了该影响的可靠性。结果表明:(1)整体看我国旅游产业结构的高级化程度在提升、合理化程度在波动中下降,但区域差异明显;(2)旅游产业结构变迁对我国旅游经济增长的影响具有区域普遍性和持久性,但影响力在下降;(3)旅游产业结构变迁对旅游经济增长影响力的大小具有时段性特征,但比较而言,旅游产业结构合理化是推动旅游经济增长的基础性动力。针对上述结论,文章进一步讨论了其成因并提出了相关建议。     

Research priorities in park tourism

Park tourism is a large and important activity on which a substantial body of research work has been published. This paper reviews that work in the light of the issues now faced by parks and park tourism, and argues that there are significant research gaps that urgently need additional work. The paper outlines 10 such areas, including: visitor use monitoring; park tourism economic impact monitoring; park finance; professional competencies for tourism management; building public support; visitor satisfaction; licenses, permits, leases, and concessions for tourism; pricing policies; management capacity; and park tourism governance. The paper suggests that work in these areas is so important that the long term political and social relevance, effective management and sustainable future of many parks and protected areas depend on the results. It points to the park creation phase being over after about 150 years of growth, and the need to move more effectively into the long-term management phase. A number of key questions arise. The numerous parks must fulfill their conservation mandate and they must be financially secure. They almost certainly must forge links to tourism, yet not be dominated by tourism's demands, creating, therefore, a new and sustainable research-based relationship.