Auditor Independence,Current and Future NAS Fees and Audit Quality: Were European Regulators Right?

Abstract

European Union adopted the Regulation (EU) No 537/2014, which in practice prohibits the joint provision of audit and most types of non-audit services (NAS). Regulators presume that NAS fees weaken auditor independence and, as a result, impair audit quality. As the evidence at the European level does not support this view, the question of whether the new regulation will enhance auditor independence remains open. We examine the association between future NAS fees and audit quality by distinguishing among tax, audit-related and other services. We base the analysis on a sample of Spanish listed companies for the period between 2005 and 2016, finding a consistent negative association between future other NAS fees and audit quality. This suggests that the expectation of future purchases of this type of NAS may impair auditor independence. Conversely, for tax and audit-related services results are not significant. Taken together, results suggest that European regulators should seek for further evidence before banning NAS, as some of them may in fact enhance audit quality.     

Review of empirical research on rotation and non-audit services: auditor independence in fact vs. appearance

Confidence in the processes of corporate reporting and auditing has rapidly decreased recently due to front-page accounting scandals in both the United States and Europe. The goal of audit regulations, such as the Sarbanes Oxley Act in the United States (US) and the 8th Directive in the European Union (EU), is to restore public trust in the auditing process. Along with other regulatory aspects, requirements related to audit partner rotation and bans on providing concurrent non-audit services were implemented to maintain auditor independence, both in fact and in appearance. However, the implementation of audit regulation implies that increased requirements are able to enhance the failed audit function. Empirical research should help to understand the impact of these two regulatory aspects and indicate their effectiveness in maintaining auditor independence. Thus, we outline the newest empirical research related to audit partner rotation and non-audit services and independence in fact or in appearance. Overall, we conclude that prior research does not point to one particular requirement that would most effectively restore trust in the audit function. Rather the existence of multiple threats to auditor independence might demand a combination of several requirements to maintain auditor independence. Thus, more research is needed to investigate the joint effects of different threats to auditor independence, e.?g., non-audit fees and audit partner tenure.     

Non-audit Services and Audit Quality: Evidence from Private Firms

The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between audit quality in private firms and the provision of non-audit services (NAS) – an issue that has rarely been considered in prior research. The threats to auditor independence are different in private firms compared to public firms. The same is true of the opportunities to use the same knowledge for audit and for NAS. Therefore, the effect of the provision of NAS on audit quality is also likely to be different. In this study, audit quality is measured by discretionary accruals, as well as by managers' perceptions of the extent to which the audit improves accounting quality. The regression analysis is based on 420 surveyed private firms in Sweden and suggests that audit quality is positively associated with NAS in general and accounting services in particular. The findings indicate that the joint provision of audit and NAS do not necessarily result in impaired auditor independence, but rather support the existence of knowledge spillover between the services.     

Research Forum: cross border comparisons Introduction

This paper investigates the effect of non-audit services on audit quality. Following the announcement of the requirement to disclose non-audit fees, approximately one-third of UK quoted companies disclosed before the requirement became effective. Whilst distressed companies were more likely to disclose early, auditor size, directors' shareholdings and non-audit fees were not significantly correlated with early disclosure. These results cast doubt on the view that voluntary disclosure of non-audit fees was used to signal audit quality. The evidence also indicates a positive weakly significant relationship between disclosed non-audit fees and audit qualifications. This suggests that when non-audit fees are disclosed, the provision of non-audit services does not reduce audit quality.     

市场诱吓、政府引导、自我施压与非审计业务拓展策略——来自本土会计师事务所的证据

基于本土会计师事务所的问卷调查数据,运用结构方程模型,从宏观环境、市场诱吓、政府引导和自我施压四个构面研究非审计业务拓展的驱动机制。研究发现:宏观环境、市场诱吓构面的战略资产导向与防御导向均未对非审计业务拓展策略产生正向影响;市场诱吓构面和政府引导构面因素促使事务所偏好于非审计业务领域及范围的拓展;自我施压构面因素促使事务所偏好于非审计业务收入的提高;所有显著的驱动因素中,按照总效应从大到小排序,依次是市场势力获取、制度设计导向、资源运用、客户导向和政府引导。     

胁迫威胁下的审计独立性问题研究

审计独立性是决定审计质量能否得到保证和审计目的能否实现的关键因素。在我国,审计人员受被审单位管理当局胁迫而出具不实审计报告的问题十分突出,胁迫威胁的存在严重地影响了审计的独立性。本文试图通过博弈分析来专门探讨经营者的胁迫威胁对审计人员独立性的影响,并据此提出保护审计独立性的有效手段。     

Impact of renewable long-term audit mandates on audit quality

Anglo-American countries like the US and the UK allow companies to switch auditors every year. In contrast, some continental European countries restrict auditor switching by allowing only renewable long-term audit mandates. This paper aims to analyse the impact of renewable long-term audit mandates on audit quality. Audit quality is considered from the viewpoint of the external users of the financial statements. It is questioned whether renewable long-term audit mandates have an impact on the auditor's reporting behaviour and on auditor independence. This research is motivated by the lack of consensus in the literature on the impact of the length of the auditor client relationship on audit quality. Moreover, few empirical studies use publicly available secondary data in order to determine whether perceived threats to auditor independence actually compromise auditor independence. Therefore, our research methodology consists in the development of a logistic regression model in which the explanatory variables are measured using publicly available data. The results of the study suggest that long-term auditor client relationships significantly increase the likelihood of an unqualified opinion or significantly reduce the auditor's willingness to qualify audit reports. A significant difference was also found between the auditor's reporting behaviour in the first two years versus the last year of the audit mandate. Auditors are more willing to issue an unqualified audit report in the first two years of their official mandate than in the last year of their mandate. This could be an indication that the decision to renew the auditor's mandate is already taken and known to the auditor before he has issued his last audit report within his current mandate. The policy implications of these findings could be in favour of mandatory auditor rotation to maintain the value of an audit for the external users. However, given recent theoretic evidence on the adverse effects of mandatory auditor rotation, there is a need to develop alternative measures to safeguard auditors' independence.     

Non-audit services and auditor independence: some evidence from Ireland

This study reports the results of an investigation into the effects of the provision of non-audit services (NAS) on perceptions of auditor independence held within the Irish commercial environment, an environment not previously subject to a study of this nature. The methodology used in the study combined the use of a mail questionnaire and semi-structured interviews to allow both breadth of coverage and the opportunity to probe deeper into the nature of the perceptions held. The principal findings of the study were that perceptions of auditor independence were significantly diminished when NAS were provided to clients by personnel involved in the audit rather than by either a separate department within the audit firm or to non-audit clients only. The study highlighted that users of financial statements were willing to accept some reduction in auditor independence consequent upon the provision of NAS if this resulted in firms obtaining better or more cost-effective advice or if it resulted in a higher standard of audit. Analysis of the interviews provided further insights into the manner in which users of financial statements formed these perceptions and also suggested that, in the opinion of the interviewees, the small size and closeness of the Irish audit market acted to enhance rather than diminish audit independence.     

The Provision of Tax Services by Incumbent Auditors and Earnings Management: Evidence from Korea

This study examines the associations between the provision of tax services by incumbent auditors and earnings management. We investigate whether three different effects of tax service provision play different roles in accounting practices. The three effects include the audit independence effect, the knowledge spillover effect, and the tax avoidance effect. If the provision of tax services by incumbent auditors harms auditor independence, firms may exercise greater earnings management (audit independence effect). However, if incumbent auditors gain incremental knowledge by offering tax services, the quality of their audit services could be enhanced, and therefore, reported earnings could be more conservative (knowledge spillover effect). If tax service fee leads to low taxable income, it could depress book income when book-tax conformity is high (tax avoidance effect). We find that the provision of tax services generally improves earnings quality by curtailing opportunistic accounting practices. The results also suggest that the negative association between the provision of tax services and discretionary accruals seems to be primarily driven by the knowledge spillover effect as opposed to the tax avoidance effect. Additional analysis is conducted in examining whether the tax avoidance effect exists in a sub-sample.     

Changing the Institutional Framework of Statutory Audit: Internal Stakeholders' Perceptions of the Associated Benefit and Costs

This paper analyses the expected benefits and costs associated with changes to the institutional framework of statutory audits. We focus on five changes: Mandatory external audit firm rotation, auditor appointment by an independent regulator, a general ban on providing non-audit services, a ban on providing non-audit services to audit clients, and mandatory joint audits. We survey supervisory board members and management representatives from German companies to analyse how these changes affect the following beneficial attributes: Client-specific expertise and knowledge, general professional competence and expertise, independence and professional scepticism, and reputation. Our results show that none of the proposed changes is expected to increase the benefit of audits. A ban on non-audit services to audit clients is perceived to have the least disadvantageous effect, followed by a general ban on non-audit services, mandatory external audit firm rotation, appointment by an independent regulator, and mandatory joint audits. Although all changes are expected to increase auditor independence and professional scepticism, this increase is offset by a decrease in other beneficial attributes, particularly client-specific expertise and knowledge. Compared to supervisory board members, management representatives anticipate significantly larger decreases in the benefit of audits and significantly larger increases in costs.     

European Market Reaction to Audit Reforms

Abstract

This paper investigates European stock market reaction to events associated with the proposed EU audit reforms that were ultimately implemented in 2016. These include, inter alia, mandatory audit firm rotation, prohibition of non-audit services, and fee caps. We find that investors react positively to the proposals, lifting aggregate market value by approximately €108,630 million. In cross-sectional analysis at both country and firm level, we find that these net benefits arise from the prohibition of non-audit services and the placing of a cap on total fees charged by the auditor. Furthermore, we find investors in firms with low earnings quality appear to perceive the greatest benefits from the proposed reforms.     

Market Implications of the Audit Quality and Auditor Switches: Evidence from China

Independent audits enhance the credibility of corporate financial reports and assist investors to make rational decisions in the capital market. Nonetheless, the utility of the auditing function depends upon the quality of audits, which is determined by the independence and expertise of auditors. Hence, auditor choice and switch will not only affect an audit's quality, but will also influence decisions made by investors and other market participants. The purpose of this paper is to investigate how investors respond to the quality of audits and auditor switches in the Chinese context. Empirical results show that the quality of an audit and switching to a larger auditor have a positive (negative) impact on earnings response coefficients (ERCs) for firms with positive (negative) abnormal earnings. In contrast, switching to a smaller auditor has a negative (positive) impact on ERCs for firms with positive (negative) abnormal earnings. These results suggest that large auditing firms (Top 10) in China are perceived as more effective for curbing income-increased earnings management, which leads to higher (lower) ERCs for clients with positive (negative) abnormal earnings. Firms' switching to a larger auditor may signal high-quality earnings. Therefore, investors more often increase stock prices when firms have positive abnormal earnings and less often depreciate prices for negative abnormal earnings. Similarly, switching to a smaller auditor may signal lower earning quality, resulting in opposite market responses. In general, the empirical evidence suggests that audit information is valued by the capital market in China. Large auditing firms have been able to product-differentiate themselves within the Chinese stock market.     

审计师变更、审计收费与审计委员会效率

本文首先研究了审计委员会与外部审计师变更之间的关系,发现设立审计委员会的公司,外部审计师发生变更的可能性显著降低。表明审计委员会能有效缓解管理层与外部审计师之间就如何运用公认会计原则产生的分歧,并在相互的冲突中向外部审计师提供支持。本文还研究了外部审计师变更时,设立审计委员会与年报审计收费变化之间的关系。无论从变化方向和变化数量的角度,公司设立审计委员会都与审计收费变化显著负相关。这说明外部审计师显著降低了对已设立审计委员会公司的审计收费。这为审计委员会能够改善内部控制环境,降低外部审计的控制风险提供了间接证据。     

自愿性审计师变更原因与投资者反应

本文选取2001￣2004年发生自愿性审计师变更的公司作为样本,采用事件研究法考察投资者对审计师变更公告中所披露不同变更原因的反应。研究发现,市场对于不同原因的审计师变更反应存在差异,投资者根据变更原因判定审计师变更为好消息的反应显著大于判定其为坏消息的反应。由此可知,投资者对于披露的变更原因信息具有一定的识别能力,不同类型的审计师变更会影响公司的价值。监管部门强制披露审计师变更原因有助于提高市场有效性。     

Loss Aversion,Audit Risk Judgments,and Auditor Liability

Abstract

I investigate how different legal regimes affect auditor's effort and investors' investment decisions when the auditor is subject to probability weighting and loss aversion, which are two important characteristics of Prospect Theory. Probability weighting encourages an auditor to overrate the audit risk and the likelihood of damages leading to inflated audit fees which could help to explain the BigN audit-fee premium. With loss aversion, an auditor is sensitive to the risk of damage compensation and, thus, tends to exert excessive caution which also generates excessive audit fees. Consequently, investors may choose not to hire an auditor and, as a result, may forego an otherwise profitable investment. These effects are more intense with a strict liability regime than with a negligence rule because with the latter, the auditor is not held liable when due care has been exerted. This removes the risk of incurring losses. The paper highlights the robustness of the negligence regime when preferences are unobservable.     

审计收费影响因素的实证分析

本文从客户特征出发提出三个假设研究审计收费影响因素,发现公司规模对审计收费有显著影响,代表风险因素和盈余管理动机的变量对审计收费影响不显著,说明审计师对审计风险因素重视不足。     

Are Joint Audits Associated with Higher Audit Fees?

In its October 2010 Green Paper on audit policy, the European Commission suggested that joint audits might be a way of improving the audit market in Europe. However, some parties consider that a joint audit system is not an efficient solution because the perceived improvements in audit quality, if any, are not commensurate with the significant increase in audit fees. We compare audit fees paid during the years 2007–2011 by listed companies in France, where joint audits are mandatory, with those paid by British and Italian companies. Theory suggests that audit fees in countries with high investor protection, such as the UK, are likely to be greater than those in countries with lower investor protection, such as France and Italy, ceteris paribus. However, we find significantly higher audit fees in France after controlling for well-documented auditor, client, and engagement attributes, which vary across countries. Furthermore, since we do not find statistically significant differences in the magnitude of abnormal accruals, the higher audit fees observed in France do not appear to be associated with higher audit quality.     

Auditors' Ability to Resist Client Pressure and Culture: Perceptions in China and the United Kingdom

Ongoing corporate scandal and audit failure raise serious concerns about the ability of auditors to resist client pressure. Based on a sample of 93 auditors from China and the United Kingdom (U.K.), we analyze the effect of specificity of accounting standard, level of auditor tenure, provision of management advisory services (MAS) and degree of audit market competition on perceptions of auditors' ability to withstand client pressure in audit conflict situations. We draw on cultural differences to explain differences in auditors' perceptions in the respective countries. Our findings are consistent with national cultural characteristics identified in the research literature. We find that U.K. auditors perceive specificity of accounting standards, auditor tenure, MAS and competition as less likely to affect decisions as to whether or not to accept clients' preferred accounting treatments than do their Chinese counterparts. Additionally while Chinese auditors perceive MAS and competition to be significant factors, they perceive accounting standard specificity and auditor tenure to be insignificant. For U.K. auditors, these results are reversed. The results may be relevant to international audit firms operating cross‐culturally and seeking to apply common audit procedures or codes of professional conduct in different national settings.     

生物资产是否影响审计收费？——基于上市公司的经验证据

以我国2007—2018年上市公司为样本，实证检验了生物资产对审计收费的影响及其作用机制。研究表明，相比没有生物资产的上市公司，有生物资产的上市公司审计收费显著增加，并且在有生物资产的上市公司中，计提生物资产减值的上市公司审计收费会更高。原因在于生物资产具有生物转化等特性，扩大了企业盈余管理空间，审计师出于审计成本与审计风险的考虑，会增加审计收费。进一步研究发现，当企业内部控制存在缺陷或者企业为非国有上市公司时，生物资产对审计收费的正向影响会更显著，并且审计师行业专长抑制生物资产与审计收费的正向关系。     

The impact of litigation risk on the association between audit quality and auditor size: Evidence from China

We examine whether audit quality varies across different sizes of CPA firms under high or low auditor‐specific litigation risk exposure. We measure audit quality by the issuance of modified audit opinions and the audit fees charged to clients, and we use the organizational form of CPA firms as the proxy for auditors’ litigation risk exposure, where a partnership (limited liability) CPA firm represents a high (low) litigation risk exposure. Built on Choi, Kim, Liu, and Simunic's (2008) theoretical framework, we hypothesize that the litigation risk exposure of CPA firm moderates the association between auditor size and audit quality. Our results show that when the auditor's liability is capped (i.e., registered as a limited liability form of CPA firm), larger size CPA firms are associated with higher audit quality when compared to smaller size CPA firms. However, this positive association between auditor size and audit quality disappears for audit firms that are subject to high litigation risk exposures (i.e., registered as a partnership form of CPA firm). Our research provides new insights on the impact of auditor‐specific litigation risks on the relation between audit quality and auditor size. In particular, we show that only when auditor‐specific litigation risk is limited, do large CPA firms appear to perform higher quality audits than small CPA firms.