明清时期的陕西商人资本

明代崛起于关中地区的商人群体是陕商的主体。它的产生与发展得益于明清时期相对有利的外部环境;同时又与关陕本土密不可分。无论如何,陕商是一个实力不弱、值得称述的商人集团,在明清商界数百年间始终占有一席之地。因此,陕商研究无论是对于明清商业史研究抑     

苏商溯源

秦始皇统一六国，并统一了全国的文字、货币．度量衡，促使货物在全国范围内大流通。因此．我国的商业一向比较发达．商人资本比较雄厚．特别是到了明清时期．资本主义萌芽在我国大地的出现．商业较发达地区渐渐出现了长途贩运的地域商人群体．他们以自己的聪明才智，吃苦耐劳．获得了成功。在浩瀚的历史长河中，出现了徽商、晋商、渐商、苏商、粤商等不少带有明显地域色彩的商人集团．留下了自己显赫的名声。     

三农与市场--以明清经济发展为例

本文主要讨论的问题，其一、在地主制经济体制下，中国传统社会特点，及其与市场经济相结合缘由；其二、三农兴衰与市场兴衰紧密相连；其三、中国传统社会里，商业发展与不发展，关键在于重农政策贯彻好坏，而不是什么重农抑商的结果。     

唐代重商思想的兴起

一、解题首先要说明本文所说的“商”，是指经营商品流通业务的民间商业和商人，包括手工业和手工业者，所以有时也称“商工”或“工商”，视所述主题范围和重点不同而异。在古代，除农家副业外，手工业大多是由商人经营的。商人对于买进的有些商品，雇人做点简单加工，然后再把它卖出去。城市中店铺的“前店后场”，是这种经营形式的最好说明。这是封建社会工商业经营的主要形式。其次，本文所说的重商思想，是中国封建社会时期“抑末”（抑工商）思想和政策在转变中出现的一种经济思想，但它与欧洲封建社会末期出现的重商主义经济思想是有…     

景德镇陶瓷产业集群中商帮的发展、演变研究

商帮、会馆是商人为了降低商业运行费用、降低交易风险、更好地维护自身利益而在明朝时期主导、在清朝不断壮大并适应形势变化而演进的商业组织创新形式。作为营销申介，瓷商的作用是市场与瓷器工场的连接纽带。商人、商帮在景德镇陶瓷特色产业集群发展申发挥了市场的实现、反馈和调节功能作用，降低了陶瓷科技与产业封接成本；发挥了市场调节的功能，保证了集群经济的协调发展。     

宁波商帮与晋商、徽商、粤商比较析论（一）

晋商、徽商、粤商是中国明清时代的三大商帮，称雄商界数百年，各领风骚。晋商以“票号”逞威南北；徽商在盐业、典当、茶叶、木材四大行业中历据优势；广东商人以行动果敢，敢为天下先，在外贸买办行业中显赫一时。晋商和徽商，是中国封建时代传统商人的典型，而粤商在通商口岸开埠后逐渐向近代商人转变。比较宁波商帮和这三大商帮之间的差异，     

沿江商业的八项改造工程

沿江商业的八项改造工程会年涌乐新区沿江商业将实施（顶改造工程．这（项改造工程分别是：挖掘培育十家＊特优企业、前点扶植者字号商口—扩建二十家规模商店，包括扩建湘乐商场．改造沪颀、潍坊、竹园、南码头菜场；完善和建设三条特色商业街，重点改造建设昌里路综合商...     

新商帮改写区域经济版图

调查显示．随着区域经济的新一轮发展，目前中国存在着可以地域识别的商人群体。浙江商帮、山东商帮、苏南商帮、闽南商帮、珠三角商帮并称为中国新五大商帮．受到世人关注。一项在北京地区进行的企业界人士调查显示．近半数受访人士认为，目前中国存在着可以地城识别的商人群体．他们总共提及了45个地域性商人圈．其中广东与浙江商人几乎齐名。     

明中叶以后"士商渗透"的制度环境--以政府的政策变化为视角

明代中后期,随着商品经济的发展，传统的重义轻利的“义利观”发生了很大变化，“士好言利”、弃儒从商渐成风气，“士商渗透”成为明清时期非常引人注目的社会现象。这一社会现象的出现，有着复杂而深层的社会原因，其中，明清时期政府相关政策调整变化的制度因素不客忽视——政府工商政策的趋向宽松，提供了一种比较有利于商业发展和提高商人地位的制度环境；商人应试登第政策的变化，特别是捐纳制度的实行，强烈冲击了传统的科举取士制度，成为直接促进“士商渗透”的重要渠道。     

华商“商性”之个性与共性

把人性注入商业,是美国著名财经刊物《福布斯》的创刊理念。商业的个性,商人的个性,或者某个民族、某个地域的商业个性、商人个性,我们不妨统言之"商性"。对"商性"的研究,为工商时代人们的一大兴趣。因为研究"商性",有利于洞察人性,从而驾驭商业。而对人性的洞察,又有利于深化我们对"商性"的理解,从而更好地铺陈商业。每个人都有自己的个性,所谓"一母生九子,连母十个样"。我们从《水浒》、《三国演义》以及《红楼梦》等文学作品以及日常生活中领教过各种各样的个性故事。     

Bubbles, crises, and policy

In many recent cases financial liberalization has led to a bubblein asset prices. The bursting of the bubble results in a bankingcrisis and recession. It is suggested such bubbles are causedby an interaction of the risk-shifting problem arising fromagency relationships in intermediaries and uncertainty concerningthe expansion of credit. Two important policy objectives areidentified. The first is the prevention of bubbles in assetprices. The second is minimizing the impact of spillovers onto the real economy during post-bubble banking crises. The differentpolicy approaches taken in Norway and Japan are compared.     

Finance, governments, and trade

We study how financial transactions may respond to exogenous variation in trade opportunities not only directly, but also through policy channels. In more open economies, governments may find it more difficult to fund and enforce public policies that substitute private financial transactions, and more appealing to deregulate financial markets. We propose a simple theoretical model of such policy-mediated relationships between trade and financial development. Empirically, we document in a country panel dataset that, before the 2007–2008 crisis, financial market volumes were robustly and negatively related to the share of government consumption in GDP in regressions that also include indicators of financial regulation and trade openness, and we seek support for a causal interpretation of this result in instrumental variable specifications.     

Migration,FDI, and Welfare

We investigate migration and foreign direct investment (FDI) for a small trading economy. Historically, immigration in small countries has been accompanied by FDI inflows (complementary capital movements). Based on the skill composition of migrants, empirical evidence finds that skilled immigration is accompanied by FDI inflows but unskilled immigration is accompanied by FDI outflows (substitutable capital movements). We prove that the Heckscher-Ohlin model cannot reconcile these apparently contradictory observations. We introduce a theoretical model in which capital and unskilled labor are sector specific, and demonstrate that this model can reconcile the historical and empirical observations on migration and FDI.     

Offshoring,wages, and heterogeneity

Considering heterogeneous responses by skill group to material and service offshoring, we examine the relationship between offshoring and the individual wages of workers in the U.S. labor market. We find that offshoring has been beneficial for high-skill workers but detrimental for middle- and low-skill workers. In particular, service offshoring, which has been widespread since 2000, has severely affected the labor market, compared to material offshoring.     

Emotions,Sanctions, and Cooperation

We use skin conductance responses and self‐reported hedonic valence to study the emotional basis of cooperation and punishment in a social dilemma. We argue that the availability of sanctions sets in motion a “virtuous emotional circle” that accompanies cooperation. Emotional reaction to free riding leads cooperators to apply sanctions. In response, and in addition to the monetary consequences of receiving sanctions, the negative emotions experienced by the free‐riders when punished lead them to increase their subsequent level of cooperation. The outcome is an increased level of cooperation that becomes a new norm. Therefore, emotions sustain both the use of altruistic punishment and cooperation.     

Growth, equality, and history

Complex policy issues deserve frequent reassessment, and the relationship between economic growth and equality is undeniably complex. Policymakers who care about trade-offs between the two goals continue to press the scientific limits of empirical economics. It takes an enormous sample of long-term national experiences to approximate the data base necessary to move debate from allegation to evidence. Fortunately, the sample continues to expand. Since the 1950s dozens of countries have produced evidence on income distribution and growth, and the records of some currently developed countries have been extended back into the 17th century. This article assesses the empirical harvest. Most of our inferences, however, are based on American and British history.