THE EFFECT OF ACTIVATION OF THE OXIDATION REACTION OF SODIUM PERBORATE ON THE CLEANING OF TEXTILES AND THE CONSUMPTION OF ELECTRIC ENERGY

The purpose of this study was to investigate the bleaching efficiency of activated sodium perborate at low washing temperatures and the resulting energy saving. The comparison of the washing efficiency of basic and activated detergent was based on practical washing tests. The types of dirt used were coffee, fruit juice, tea, blood and a soot-oil mixture. The washing temperatures were 50, 60, 70 and 80°C. The cleanness of the washing was determined by a whiteness measurement. The consumption of electrical energy was measured with a kWh-meter. The higher the temperature, the more effectively all the types of dirt were removed from the textiles. With activated detergent a cleanness was obtained at 50°C and 60°C that was almost as good as with basic detergent at 80°C. The coloured types of dirt washed out more easily than blood or the soot and oil mixture. An average saving of 20% in the consumption of energy was obtained when the washing temperature was lowered by 10°C. With activated detergent, 45% of the energy consumed using basic detergent was saved with no reduction in the final cleanness.     

HOME LAUNDERING PART II. A LABORATORY EVALUATION OF THE WASHING PERFORMANCE OF FOUR DETERGENT PRODUCTS AT 40°C

A detailed comparison of the washing performance of four detergent products is discussed. The results of experiments using stained tea and terry towels and fabrics having standard stains, clearly indicate that the performance of liquid home laundering formulations commercially available in the U.K. and France does not compare favourably with the results obtained from perborate-containing powder products.     

THE EFFECT OF THE OXIDATION REACTION OF SODIUM PERBORATE ON THE DAMAGE TO THE COTTON DURING WASHING

The purpose of this study was to explain the effect of activated sodium perborate on cotton cloth. The comparison between the damage caused by basic and activated detergent was based on practical washing tests. The washing temperatures were 60°C and 90°C. Damage to the cotton was determined with a physical (tenacity) and a chemical (fluidity) method. Damage to the cotton increased as the temperature rose. Washing with basic detergent at 60°C did the least damage to the cotton. The activated detergent at 60°C damaged the cotton more strongly, but slightly less than the basic detergent at 90°C. Damage to cotton caused by washing can be determined more rapidly and more reliably with a chemical method than with a physical one.     

THE EFFECT OF DETERGENT TYPE AND LAUNDERING TEMPERATURE ON THE SOIL REMOVAL AND SOIL REDEPOSITION PERFORMANCE OF COTTON AND P/C BLENDS WITH AND WITHOUT DURABLE PRESS FINISH

Three soiled test cloths of cotton and 65/35% Dacron/cotton blends with and without durable press finish were subjected to twenty-five repeated launderings in Launder-Ometer to determine the effect of fabric type, wash temperature, and laundering interval on the soil removal and soil redeposition performance. The reflectance of the test fabrics as measured by a Hunter Lab D-40 reflectometer and the amount of soil removed and redeposited was computed in reflectance unit (RU) expressing the difference in reflectance of the test samples before and after washing. Soil removal and redeposition performances were significantly influenced by fabric type, detergent type, and laundering interval. Duncan's multiple range test indicated that Dacron/cotton blends with and without durable press finish retained and redeposited significantly less soil than cotton. Powder detergents cleaned test fabrics better than liquid detergents. Highly significant correlations between soil removal and redeposition RU and whiteness measurements were found. Therefore, both computations serve as reliable methods to evaluate soil removal and redeposition performance.     

The disinfectant action of low-temperature laundering

The purpose of this research was to investigate the disinfectant action of a heavy-duty biological detergent at low and recommended washing temperatures. The effectiveness of the process was measured in terms of the removal, transfer and destruction of bacteria from infected test pieces. The results indicate that reducing the washing temperature decreases the degree of disinfection and increases the cross-infection of any articles washed in the same load. Evidence is also obtained that shows that the presence of detergent is more important than the washing temperature for disinfectant action.     

A comparison of the disinfectant action of a powder and liquid detergent during low-temperature laundering

The purpose of this research was to investigate the disinfectant action of a heavy-duty powder and heavy-duty liquid detergent at recommended and low washing temperatures. The effectiveness of the disinfectant action was measured in terms of removal, transfer and destruction of bacteria from infected test pieces of fabric. The investigation suggests that the temperature of the wash is important, since when reduced, less disinfectant action is observed. The results also indicate that liquid detergent is more effective at removing and destroying bacteria then powder at both temperatures used.     

EFFECT OF FIBRE CONTENT AND METHOD OF APPLICATION OF SELECTED INTERFACINGS ON PERFORMANCE OF GARMENTS AFTER REPEATED LAUNDERING

The purpose of the study was to investigate the effect of fibre content and method of application of selected interfacing fabrics on appearance of garments after repeated laundering. Experimental fabrics were three interfacings of 100% polyester sew-in, 100% rayon and 100% polyester fusible, and two white fashion fabrics of polyester/cotton durable press treated and 100% cotton. Thirty blouses were constructed and divided into six groups representing six combinations of fashion and interfacing fabrics. Evaluation methods included appearance, dimensional stability and stiffness. Data were statistically analysed using t tests and Pearson rank order correlation coefficient. Results showed that method of applying interfacing fabrics had a significant effect on appearance of the combined fashion and interfacing fabrics. Sew-in method resulted in satisfactory appearance throughout repeated laundering for polyester/cotton DP fabric. Deterioration of adhesive resin of fusible interfacings in the laundering process resulted in significant shrinkage and poor appearance. Also, relationship was found between per cent shrinkage and appearance ratings indicating that as per cent shrinkage increased, appearance ratings decreased. Effect of fibre content of interfacings on appearance was not significant. However, interfacing fabrics were found to be the major contributor to shrinkage of composite fabric and not the fashion fabrics. Poor appearance of fusible interfacings was related also to per cent loss of stiffness.     

CONSUMER ATTITUDES TOWARDS LEVEL OF SOIL REMOVAL AND ENERGY USE IN THE LAUNDERING PROCESS

A series of fabric swatches depicting various levels of soil removal were presented to consumers, with one-half of the subjects being given energy requirements to obtain each level of soil removal. A whiteness index of 50 was found to be the minimum acceptable level of soil removal. Information on resources required to obtain the various levels of soil removal did not change the minimum level of acceptance. Attitudes of consumers concerning ecological issues, obtained from a questionnaire, did not correlate with consumers' acceptance scores. There was some indication from the questionnaire data that consumers might be willing to make some trade-offs for monetary savings in place of maximum levels of soil removal. The level of acceptance of soil removal was most closely related to attitude toward cleanliness and neatness.     

ENERGY CONSERVATION IN TEXTILE DRYING BY SELECTION OF RINSE TEMPERATURE

In washing apparel and related articles, a cold rinse does not always conserve energy. Removal of water in spin drying becomes more complete as its temperature is raised, thus reducing the amount of costly thermal drying. When gas-heated water is used in washing followed by electric drying, total energy cost is minimized by using at least a warm rinse cycle. When the same type of energy is used in water heating and drying, no energy is saved by heating rinse water.     

An investigation into some aspects of the efficiency of low-temperature laundering

The purpose of this research was to investigate the efficiency of laundering at low and recommended water temperatures using a heavy-duty biological detergent and a low-temperature detergent. The effectiveness of the process was measured in terms of the degree of stain/soil removal from laundered garments, and in the removal and transfer of bacteria from infected test pieces. The results indicate that with both detergents a reduction in washing efficiency occurs as the temperature of laundering is decreased, except when the difference between the recommended and low water temperature is small. Evidence was also obtained that shows that reducing wash temperatures decreases the degree of disinfection and increases the cross-infection of articles washed in the same load.     

Hygienic quality of cleaning cloths used in professional cleaning of private domestic homes

The objective of this laboratory study was to obtain general background information concerning professional cleaning in private domestic homes. The specific aim was to examine the effect of storage and washing of dirty cloths on their hygienic status. The effect of storage on the number of Staphylococcus aureus bacteria in cleaning cloths was examined using current or potential materials for professional cleaning in private homes. The bacterial content increased in microfibre cloths in some cases during a normal working day (8 h storage), and more clearly after 16 h or 48 h of storage. Disposable fibre cloths did not promote the growth of microbes as well as microfibre cloths. The effect of detergents on the hygienic status of cleaning cloths was unclear: some cleaning agents appeared to enhance the growth of bacteria, while others did not. In many cases, organic substances, i.e. protein added to the cloths, enhanced the growth of microbes. Washing of microfibre cloths at 60°C reduced the numbers of bacteria on the cloths but did not remove them entirely. Storage of dirty cloths before washing will probably cause difficulties in the proper washing of the cloths, and thus negatively affect their capacity for hygienic results in cleaning surfaces, as well as presenting a risk to the safety of the worker. Cleaning cloths should be washed as soon as possible after use: washing after each working day, at the latest, is recommended. Furthermore, cleaning cloths should be selected for professional use to allow washing at hot temperatures. The findings of this study could be used for training in professional home cleaning. They also provide valuable information for other branches of cleaning, including consumer use in households.     

THE COST OF WASHING CLOTHES: SOURCES OF VARIATION

This paper develops the national average cost of washing clothes by examining consumer research data on the frequencies of using various water temperature settings and laundry additives and by utilizing national surveys of laundry product prices. Variations in these costs are shown to be significantly affected by three variables: (1) costs increase with family size due to the higher number of loads washed, (2) costs increase in areas where phosphate detergents are not available due to an increased use of hot water and laundry additives and (3) costs increase in harder water areas due to an increased use of hot water and fabric softener. The average increased cost for energy and laundry additives per family due to the nonavailability of phosphate detergents exceeds $11.00 per year. In addition to this amount, increased wear on washing machine parts and fabrics from the use of carbonate-built detergents significantly increases the costs to consumers in nonphosphate areas.     

A COMPARISON OF THE EFFICIENCY OF MANUAL AND AUTOMATIC DISHWASHING FOR THE REMOVAL OF BACTERIA FROM DOMESTIC CROCKERY

A comparison was made between dinner plates washed by hand and dried by tea towel, and plates washed in a dishwasher. The results indicate that during hand washing and drying the total number of bacteria found on the plates increased seven-fold. Mechanical dishwashing almost totally removed naturally occurring bacteria from the plates; bacteria were also almost completely removed from plates artificially contaminated with a culture of Escherichia coli.     

COMPUTER ASSISTED ANALYSIS OF CONSUMER COMPLAINTS OF TEXTILE ITEMS

Results of the analysis of consumer complaints to Citizens' Advice Centres indicate that many of the complaints concerning textile articles are unfounded. This is often due to a lack of appreciation of such factors as the properties of different materials, care and size labelling and correct washing and ironing procedures.     

An investigation into aspects of energy labelling with special reference to washing machines

The purpose of this research was to investigate whether the performance of domestic washing machines is adversely affected by reduced levels of energy use. This was felt particularly worthwhile because of the introduction of energy labelling for washing machines in April 1996. Results were determined by conducting tests derived from BS EN 60456. This research also aimed to discover consumer awareness of energy labelling and factors likely to influence the future purchase of washing machines. The results indicate that washing performance may be adversely affected by lower levels of energy consumption and that washing machines with a higher energy consumption achieve a better washing performance. From the survey carried out, it was discovered that the most influential factors when purchasing a washing machine were price, washing performance and brand reliability. Environmental factors such as reduced energy consumption and reduced water consumption only played a minor role in consumers' considerations. However, the research indicates that consumers' decisions may, in the future, be affected by the information displayed on energy labels.     

入境废塑料加工处理对水环境的影响

[目的]研究入境废塑料加工处理过程对水环境的影响，以建立相应的检验检疫标准，防止含有有毒有害物质的废塑料入境。[方法]参考国家有关标准，对入境废塑料清洗废水的化学需氧量、pH值、重金属、半挥发有机物等进行检测分析。[结果]废水中的化学需氧量严重超标，并检测到我国现有污水排放标准中未明确规定限量的有毒有害物质双（2-乙基己基）酞酸酯。     

Can Hand Washing Influence Hedonic Food Consumption?

The act of hand washing has been a routine part of hygienic practices across time and society. Aside from its physiological effects, hand washing has also been shown to symbolically cleanse individuals of their transgressions. However, most research demonstrating the metaphorical effect of hand washing has mainly been focused within the domain of morality. The objective of the current research is to explore the role of hand washing on consumption behavior, and more specifically, hedonic food consumption. Across two studies, this article establishes the role of hand washing after hedonic food consumption as well as prior to a hedonic food choice. In Study 1, washing one's hands after consumption of hedonic food decreased perceived guilt. In Study 2, washing one's hands prior to choice led to an increased likelihood of choosing a more hedonic (compared to less hedonic) food item. Thus, by washing one's hands, individuals are provided with a license to indulge in hedonic foods without the guilt that is commonly associated with such a choice. Several implications for consumer behavior research and the effects of hand washing on food decision making are discussed.     

Comparison of the washing efficiencies of a laboratory washing device (Launder‐Ometer) and of automatic household washing machines with horizontal drums

The objective of this study was to compare the cleaning result of a laboratory washing machine – Launder‐Ometer (LOM) – with that of drum‐type household washing machines, using detergent without bleaching agent, standard soiled fabrics and a colorimeter for assessing the washing result. The mechanical effect applied to the laundry in the household washers was not obtained in the LOM by increasing mechanical impact or the number of metal balls. Extended washing time did not improve removal of blood soil in the LOM, although it did increase removal of mayonnaise soil containing chlorophyll. However, in practice a washing time of 60–85 min is relatively long for a laboratory device considering the claimed time‐saving nature of these devices. None of the examined parameters affected removal of a red wine soil containing tannins, which was poor in all test combinations both in the household machines and in the laboratory washing machine. Bleaching agent is recommended for removal of this type of soil. In conclusion, conformity between washing results of the laboratory washing machine and the drum‐type household washing machines depends on the type of soiled test fabrics and other parameters in the washing process. Removal of blood soil differed most between the household machines and the LOM.     

Choices and using of washing machines in Chinese households

Rapid urbanization and improvement in living standard skyrocket the demand for washing machines in Chinese households, especially in urban households. This paper discusses the owning rate of different types of washing machines, using frequency, load capacity, factors affect choices of washing machines, etc. in Chinese households and suggest possible strategies in choosing washing machines considering economic expenditure. Quantitative information relates to choice and use of household washing machines was collected through in‐depth interview of the key person who carried out household laundering. A total of 993 households that were randomly selected in eight provinces and a municipality were successfully interviewed. Impeller washing machine is still in a dominate place whereas drum washing machine increasing steadily. Households with higher income tend to buy drum washing machines for their better performances in detergency and superior quality. Load capacity between 4 and 6 kg is very common at present. Larger load capacity is a trend of washing machine choices in Chinese households. Washing machine with better energy efficiency is more popular for its lower expenditure in use. This is more obvious for drum washing machine. Washing machines are often used once every 1 or 2 days in summer, whereas one wash per week and two washes per week are very common in winter. Consumer will expend much more money with the choice of a drum washing machine, not only for paying for the machine, but also for the consumed electricity and water and wastewater discharges in every use.     

Clean laundry with pure conscience—A study on laundry practices among Finnish consumers

The previous study concerning laundry practices in Finland was published 16 years ago. Since that time, many pro‐environmental debates have been going on and sustainable actions have been implemented in many areas of individual lives and households. The purpose of this study is to investigate the textile laundering practices of Finnish consumers and their attitudes toward clothing care procedures. This study discusses how laundry habits could be developed into a more sustainable direction. The data for this research were gathered through an online enquiry that consisted of structured multiple‐choice questions. The data were obtained from 1,841 persons of whom 97.5% were women (n = 1,795). The data were analyzed by statistical means using the SPSS program. The data show that, despite media attention and debate about textile care procedures, there still are factors in laundering that burden the environment. From a sustainability point of view, some improvements exist when comparing to the situation 16 years ago, but washing machines still are seldom filled to their full capacity and consumers, being unaware of water hardness, administer excessive amounts of detergent. The current life situations of the household members seem to be major factors influencing laundry habits and sustainable actions. Especially, young people and families with children would benefit from information and instructions on laundry practices. Topics could contain knowledge about water hardness and proper dosing of detergent, filling the washing machine, washing temperatures, drying methods, and saving energy. Furthermore, general promotion of gender equality is important because household work and laundering is strikingly women‐performed work.