DEMAND FOR MONEY AND EXPENDITURE COMPONENTS IN SOUTH AFRICA: ASSESSMENT FROM UNRESTRICTED ERROR-CORRECTION MODELS

The main aim of this study is to examine empirically the long‐run relationship of money demand and its determinants in South Africa. In contrast with existing studies on the subject, the present study considers various components of real income as determinants. The disaggregated components are final consumption expenditure, expenditure on investment goods and exports. The other determinants are domestic interest rate, yield on government bonds and the exchange rate. The results confirm that the different components of real income have different impacts on the demand for money in South Africa. The presence of long‐run equilibrium relationships between the demand for real M1, M2 and M3 and their determinants is confirmed based on the results of bounds testing.     

Cointegration,error correction,and the demand for money in Mexico

Cointegration, Error Correction and the Demand for Money in Mexico. -Estimates of the long-run demand for narrow and broad definitions of the Mexican money supply over the period 1980Q1–1994Q1 suggest that a single cointegrating relationship exists for real money balances (M1 and M2), a scale variable (real GDP or real consumption expenditure), and the 91-day treasury bill rate. The results from short-run dynamic equations favor M2 as the monetary aggregate to target and suggest that real GDP rather than real private consumption is a more appropriate scale variable in the demand for money function for Mexico.     

开放经济条件下我国货币需求研究

文章引入股票流通市值、汇率等变量对开放经济条件下我国货币需求函数进行全面研究。协整和误差修正模型结果表明：汇率是除社会消费品零售总额外影响我国长短期货币需求稳定的最重要的变量,并且对我国货币需求的影响很大;股票市场发展对我国长期和短期货币需求的影响很小。这一发现可为我国当前反通货膨胀的货币政策的制订提供重要的参考。为控制货币供应量,我们应该重点关注汇率波动。     

Financial innovation and the long-run demand for money in the United Kingdom and in West-Germany

Financial Innovation and the Long-Run Demand for Money in the United Kingdom and in West Germany. — This paper uses a cointegration model to compare the long-run demand for broad money in the UK and (West) Germany during the period 1963Q1–1990Q2. In the long-run demand function for Germany, real M3 is determined in classical manner by real income and a single opportunity cost variable. By contrast, the UK demand function requires in addition an explicit own rate on money as well as a risk variable. The income elasticity is also very high. These differences reflect the more rapid pace of financial innovation in the UK in the 1970s and 1980s.     

Modelling the demand for broad money in the United States

The demand for money function occupies a central role in most theories of aggregate economic activity, especially in the formulation and execution of effective monetary policy. In this paper, estimates of the short- and long-run demand for broad money in the United States are obtained. The empirical evidence suggests that the relationship between the growth of money balances and its economic determinants is more stable than some have argued. Importantly, the out-of-sample forecasts presented here suggest that M2 growth in the 1980s is well predicted by an error-correction model that includes a variable representing the value of time and also uses real consumer spending as the short-run scale variable.     

Money Demand and Economic Liberalization in a Small Open Economy—Trinidad and Tobago

Economic liberalization creates potential instability in money demand. The introduction of liberalization in the early 1990s coincided with instability in the long-run demand for broad money (M2). OLS estimates confirm the presence of a structural break in the M2 model. Monetary policy should be based on a narrow definition of money. Moreover, the demand for money function must take explicit account of the openness of the economy. The results have important implications for policymakers in other Caribbean countries that are contemplating economic liberalization.     

The Demand for Money in Brunei

Based on data for the 1974–95 period this paper estimates demand for narrow money and broad money in Brunei using the error-correction specification. Short-run and long-run elasticities are estimated with respect to real income, interest rate, expected price level and liquidity. Narrow money is quite responsive to changes in real income and interest rate in both the short and long terms. Broad money is income inelastic regardless of the time horizon, however, it is interest inelastic in the short run but interest elastic in the long run. Price elasticity of money demand is negligible in the short run but quite significant in the long run. Changes in the proportion of commercial bank assets placed in foreign money markets do not seem to affect demand for narrow money but their effect on the demand for broad money is both direct and significant.     

Household consumption patterns and the consumer price index,England, 1260–1869

Existing long-run consumer price indices for England rely on a fixed consumption basket. Here we construct a methodologically improved, chained-Laspeyres price index for ordinary households based on their changing expenditure patterns between 1260 and 1869. Rather than offering a revisionist perspective on long-run costs, it confirms the broad accuracy of existing indices for the pre-industrial period. The dominant dependence of the key items of expenditure on agricultural, particularly arable, prices explains this finding. The industrial period introduced a new dynamic. The shift in household expenditure towards imported groceries and manufactured goods allowed for more substitution in response to relative price and income changes. Adding the current series to those chained-Laspeyres indices available for later periods provides a CPI for ordinary households in England over nearly eight centuries; from 1260 to the present day.     

An empirical analysis of China's aggregate import demand function

This study uses the cointegration concept to analyze the long-run relationship of China's aggregate import demand function for the period 1970–1999. The conventional specification for the import demand function reveals that the volume of imports demanded responds to domestic activity and relative prices. This study considers four definitions of domestic activity, namely gross domestic product (GDP), GDP minus exports [IMF Staff Pap. 45 (1998) 236], “national cash flow” [Econ. Lett. 74 (2002) 265], and final expenditure components [Appl. Econ. 21 (1989) 957]. The empirical results indicate a long-run equilibrium relationship between these measures of domestic activity and China's import demand. Overall, domestic activity and relative prices are inelastic in the long run. This study also highlights some policy implications.     

Extending the determinants of currency substitution in Nigeria: Any role for financial innovation?

Existing literature suggests that macroeconomic and institutional factors are the drivers of currency substitution. The persistent and significant incidence of currency substitution during the period of mixed performance of macroeconomic variables suggests the existence of a knowledge gap on the drivers of currency substitution during the era of rapid technological innovation. To contribute to this literature, we augmented the traditional money demand model of the determinants of currency substitution to introduce financial innovation. We use Nigerian data from 2005Q1 to 2019Q4 and Pesaran et al. (2001, https://doi.org/10.1002/jae.616 ) autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) bound test approach to cointegration to estimate the models. The results confirm the presence of short-run and long-run relationships between financial technology and currency substitution in Nigeria. In effect, the deployment of financial technology in developing payment system infrastructure creates additional incentives for economic agents to hold foreign currency deposit. Economic managers must, therefore, mainstream credible monetary and fiscal policies to moderate the effect of financial innovation on currency substitution.     

Dynamics of U.S. State Cigarette Consumption: Evidence from Panel Error Correction Modeling

This study uses state-level data for nearly four decades to study the dynamic demand for cigarettes, focusing especially on the long-run equilibrium relationship between cigarette consumption and its determinants as well as the short-run and long-run causal dynamics. We find the presence of cointegration with the long-run equilibrium, indicating the price elasticity of cigarette demand to be negative and inelastic, the income elasticity is positive and the border smuggling effects are significant, with substantial variations across individual states. Of the various smoking control policies considered, questions remain as to the effectiveness of aggregate anti-smoking initiatives that treat all states alike. Furthermore, the causal dynamics reveal bi-directional causality between cigarette consumption and its determinants. Some policy implications are discussed.     

Revisiting South Korea's Import Demand Behavior: A Cointegration Analysis*

Using cointegration techniques, the present study re‐examines the long‐run relationships of South Korea's aggregate import demand behavior. The present study considers four domestic activity variables; namely, gross domestic product, gross domestic product minus exports, national cash flow and final expenditure components for aggregate import demand in South Korea. The sample period covers quarterly data from 1970 to 2002. The present study provides empirical evidence of a cointegrating relation in the South Korea's import demand in which it is significant to South Korea's trade policy implication, particularly to improve external balances.     

Analyse de la consommation des biens culturels au Togo

This paper analyses the determinants of consumption decision and household expenditure on cultural goods in Togo, based on survey data from the 2015 QUIBB Basic Well‐being Indicators. The determinants of consumption decision are empirically estimated from a probit model while the determinants of consumption expenditure on cultural goods are estimated from a Tobit model and the CLAD (Censored Lead Absolute Deviation) method. The results show that the decision to consume cultural goods is positively affected by the higher level of education and the place of residence but negatively affected by the size of the household. Likewise, households' consumption expenditure is significantly influenced by income, education level, place of residence, household size, and religion. However, estimation by the CLAD method shows that the magnitude of the effect of these factors differs from one quantile to another. Furthermore, our results highlight a U‐shaped relationship between cultural spending and income. Taking these factors into account can help revive the cultural sector in Togo.     

Does Money Have a Role in Monetary Policy for Price Stability under Inflation Targeting in Thailand?

This paper deploys Thai quarterly data for the study period 1999q1–2014q4 to econometrically investigate the proposition that money growth is an important, if not the sole, determinant of inflation under inflation targeting and that the money growth-inflation relation is not conditional on the stability of the money-demand function. The autoregressive distributed-lag (ARDL) bounds-testing results suggest that, across the study period, the Thai money stock (narrow or broad), real output, prices, interest rates and exchange rates maintained a long-run equilibrium relationship. The associated error-correction model of inflation confirms the cointegral relationship among money (narrow or broad), real output, prices, interest rates and exchange rates. It also suggests that money growth has a significant distributed-lag impact on inflation. The presence of this money growth-inflation relationship was associated with a stable narrow money-demand function, whereas the broad money-demand function remained unstable. These results for the study period are consistent with the view that the causal relationship between money growth and inflation holds in Thailand under inflation targeting when the Bank of Thailand deploys a short-term policy interest rate, rather than a monetary aggregate, as the instrument of monetary policy and that this relationship is not conditional on the stability of the money-demand function.     

PERSONAL SECTOR MONEY DEMAND IN THE UK

Non-parametric demand analysis is utilised to establish weaklyseparable subsets of monetary assets for the UK personal sectorin the context of a utility function consisting of durable andnon-durable consumption goods, services, leisure, and monetaryassets The admissible collections of assets are then combinedusing Divisia aggregation in order to produce monetary aggregateswhich are consistent with economic aggregation theory We investigatethe money demand properties of the aggregates and find relativelysimple, stable long-run money-demand functions for the UK personalsector with well determined error correction dynamics.     

Explorations in monetary history: A survey of the literature

Monetary economists have long been interested in economic history as a laboratory for the testing of theory. This paper surveys recent work in monetary history within the context of the modern quantity theory of money and the new classical macroeconomics. Topics surveyed include the development of historical monetary statistics and the determinants of money supply and money demand; historical uses of Granger-Sims causality tests of the relationships between money, prices, and output; historical studies of the secular behavior of velocity; the Great Depression; financial crises; historical evidence for the long-run and short-run neutrality of money; and domestic and international aspects of monetary standards. Each topic surveyed concludes with an evaluation and an agenda for future research.     

Bank Lending and Inflation in Malaysia: Assessment from Unrestricted Error-Correction Models

The paper estimates inflation models for Malaysia by considering the influence of bank lending. The unrestricted error-correction model (UECM) proposed in Pesaran et al. (2000) was employed as being appropriate for small sample analysis such as the present study which covered annual data from 1973 to 1997. The results of 'bounds' tests confirmed a long-run equilibrium relationship between inflation and its determinants, namely import price, money supply (M3), bank credit and real income. The estimated UECMs revealed that the important factors in the Malaysian inflation process are import price and real-income variables. It was found that concurrent fiscal policies had a major influence on the impact of the depreciation of the naira on inflation. The UECMs appear to perform well and to provide an appropriate framework for forecasting the Malaysian inflation behaviour.     

Measuring misalignments in the Korean exchange rate

This paper measures to what extent the real effective exchange rate of the Korean won is misaligned from its equilibrium value by estimating the equilibrium value using the behavioral equilibrium exchange rate (BEER) approach. The economic fundamentals such as the terms of trade, the relative price of non-traded to traded goods, net foreign assets and real interest rate differentials are employed to assess the equilibrium exchange rate. Considering the drastic changes in Korea's trade pattern, the trade partner weights, which are used to compute the real effective exchange rate, are not fixed, but variable. The estimation results using the quarterly data from 1982Q1 to 2009Q4 indicate that the actual exchange rate of the Korean won was substantially overvalued for the period from 2005Q1 to 2007Q4, and substantially undervalued for the period from 2008Q2 to 2009Q3. The actual exchange rate deviates from the BEER and from the long-run equilibrium (or sustainable value) of the BEER by 32% and by 24% respectively in 2008Q4.     

东亚区域内最终产品需求的影响因素分析——基于面板数据的引力模型研究

本文利用东亚十国(或地区)1991～2010年间数据,运用引力模型,分析影响东亚区域内最终产品需求的因素。研究结果表明:区域性贸易协定(RTA)、经济总量、2008年金融危机和人均GDP差额绝对值,对区域内最终产品需求起显著促进作用;人口规模、地理距离对区域内最终产品需求起显著阻碍作用。1997年金融危机也对区域内最终产品需求起阻碍作用,但不显著。从行业差别来看,除了距离变量之外,各解释变量对资本品需求的影响均大于对消费品需求的影响。因此,为扩大东亚区域内的最终产品需求,区域内各经济体应该降低物流成本、发展区域性贸易合作组织、稳定汇率、扩大各自经济规模。     

How Dutch Teenagers spend their Money**

Adolescents have relatively large sums of money at their disposal; How and on what goods they spend their money is the subject of this paper. An AID system describing the influences of demographic characteristics, pseudo-prices and income on various expenditure categories is estimated. The system is estimated in two steps with the first step explaining zero-expenditures. Income elasticities and pseudo-price elasticities are presented. A comparison is made on the basis of three large data sets, gathered in 1984, 1990, and 1992.