Does responsive pricing smooth demand shocks?

Using data from a unique pricing experiment, we investigate Vickrey's conjecture that responsive pricing can be used to smooth both predictable and unpredictable demand shocks. Our evidence shows that increasing the responsiveness of price to demand conditions reduces the magnitude of deviations in capacity utilization rates from a pre-determined target level. A 10% increase in price variability leads to a decrease in the variability of capacity utilization rates between 2% and 6%. We discuss implications for the use of demand-side incentives to deal with congestible resources.     

Economies of Scale and Utilization: An Analysis of the Multi-Plant Generation Costs of the Electricity Commission of New South Wales, 1970/71–1984/85*

We examine the average costs of electricity generated in NSW at the site level employing a new simultaneous-equations model approach Further, we argue that costs depend principally on unit size and capacity utilization We reinterpret capacity utilization as a compositional variable which is a continuous proxy for the (inverse of) the intensity of demand for electricity, thus partially addressing the multi-product nature of electricity. Low capacity utilization corresponds to intense demands and hence peaking output We find that costs per kWh, as conventionally measured, are highly sensitive to the degree of capacity utilization but less so to unit size (scale). The results emphasize the need for tine-related pricing     

An Incentive Water Pricing Policy for Sustainable Water Use

By adopting the Water Framework Directive (WFD), the European Commission (EC) and the European Council made recommendations for water pricing policies in European Union (EU) member states with a view to enhancing the sustainability of water resources. Clearly, the directive integrates economic instruments in environmental policies to provide incentives for the sustainable use of water resources. Our analysis will focus on public water utilities, required to be financially self-sufficient, facing demand and capacity shocks. The paper deals with the simultaneous determination of incentive pricing policies and investment rules under an ex~ante maximum demand charge. We will characterize the welfare-optimal capacity selection rule and the welfare-optimal maximum demand pricing rule. Heterogeneous consumers demands are considered when tariffs are set ex~ante, before demands are known. Our results are state-contingent nonlinear pricing that responds to demand fluctuations and capacity constraints.      

Existence and efficiency of equilibrium in infinite economies with finite aggregate wealth

Summary. We prove the existence and efficiency of equilibrium in economies with infinitely many consumers in which there are finitely many agents who own a positive portion of the aggregate endowment. We prove existence for commodity spaces which are employed in the general equilibrium asset pricing models and use incomplete and intransitive preferences. We discuss the importance of existence of finitely many agents who own a positive portion of the aggregate endowment in obtaining efficient equilibrium. For general equilibrium asset pricing applications we require forward properness only at individually rational Pareto optimal allocations. We provide an Arrow-Debreu model for these economies. We also give an application of our approach and results by employing Stochastic Differential Utility as the utility of each consumer in an infinite horizon model.     

On economic efficiency under non-convexity

This paper investigates economic efficiency under non-convexity. The analysis relies on a generalization of the separating hyperplane theorem under non-convexity. The concept of zero-maximality is used to characterize Pareto efficiency under non-convexity. We show the existence of a separating hypersurface that can be used to provide a dual characterization of efficient allocations. When the separating hypersurface is non-linear, this implies that non-linear pricing is an integral part of economic efficiency. Implications for the decentralization of economic decisions under non-convexity are discussed.     

On the optimality of the full-cost pricing

This article is aimed at defining the full-cost pricing as a leader-follower game in two-tier organizations: (i) the upstream unit fixes the production capacity and uses it as a cost driver to compute the average cost; (ii) the downstream unit operates on the market and chooses the output level on the basis of the average cost. In the Cournot oligopoly case, the full-cost pricing is compared with other pricing rules. There exists a wide range of values of the fixed cost, for which the full-cost pricing dominates any other pricing rules, in terms of gross profit.     

Economic Democracy: Solution or New Challenge ∗

Abstract Kaleckians and partisans of the capital monopoly approach have argued that additional outlays on unproductive labor increase economic activity under three conditions: investment is sensitive to realized rates of capacity utilization; savings out of wages and salaries are assumed away; prices are fixed by a markup over unit direct costs. The present model examines what happens when the last hypothesis is modified, i.e., when megacorps are assumed to fix prices on the basis of total unit costs, more specifically on the basis of target-return pricing procedures. Because higher costs are shifted on to productive labor, through higher prices and a reduction in their real wages, additional unproductive outlays may have a negative impact on economic activity. It turns out, in addition, that one must carefully distinguish between unproductive labor outlays and unproductive capital outlays when firms are assumed to shift these additional costs to consumers, on the basis of target-return pricing procedures.     

Third decimal place odd prices trigger competition: evidence from the Italian retail gasoline market

Recent literature shows that in the US gasoline prices are higher in locations using more odd prices (particularly those ending in five and nine digits), since they coarse the pricing grid and act as a focal collusive point. We replicate this analysis for the Italian market, obtaining the opposite result. Since the rightmost digit of the retail gasoline prices in Italy is the third and not the second decimal place, coarsening the pricing grid is not sufficient to support a collusive behaviour.     

Nonlinear Pricing with Random Participation

The canonical selection contracting programme takes the agent's participation decision as deterministic and finds the optimal contract, typically satisfying this constraint for the worst type. Upon weakening this assumption of known reservation values by introducing independent randomness into the agents' outside options, we find that some of the received wisdom from mechanism design and nonlinear pricing is not robust and the richer model which allows for stochastic participation affords a more general empirical specification. We develop a multi-dimensional methodology for addressing this class of problems, providing two important applications to nonlinear pricing. First, with nonlinear pricing by a monopolist the familiar "no-distortion-at-the-top" result persists, but in tandem with the surprising conclusion that there is either no distortion at the bottom or bunching. Second, in a simple model of product differentiated duopolists competing with nonlinear pricing we show that, generally, the duopoly outcome is qualitatively similar to the monopoly outcome. However, when marginal costs are symmetric and competition is sufficiently intense, distortions disappear and the equilibrium outcome takes a remarkably simple form: efficient quality allocations with cost-plus-fee pricing.     

Pricing efficiency of Bitcoin Trusts

This article examines the pricing efficiency of Bitcoin Investment Trust. We investigate the deviation between prices and net asset values and find that there is a significant and persistent premium with an average of 44%. Such evidence points to pricing inefficiency of the currently available trust and encourages practitioners to introduce better instruments such as Exchange Traded Funds as alternatives to investors interested in having exposure to bitcoins and the digital currencies market.     

Asset pricing in an Islamic economy

ABSTRACT

We define an Islamic economy as one with borrowing restrictions, no leverage, and no risk-free asset. We derive a consumption-based asset pricing model for this economy under standard preferences. We demonstrate that news to consumption growth is the main driver of Islamic financial markets, but the degree of borrowing constraints also affects the pricing of Islamic assets. Using Saudi Arabian data, simulations show that our model does a good job in matching the observed equity premium as well as the volatility of the market return. Our model implies that the price-dividend ratio predicts dividend growth, and as a result that prices are driven mainly by cash-flow news rather than by discount rate news. Empirical tests show that our model is consistent with the data.     

Uncertainty shocks,precautionary pricing,and optimal monetary policy

Existing studies show that, in standard New Keynesian models, uncertainty shocks manifest as cost-push shocks due to the precautionary pricing channel. We study optimal monetary policy in response to uncertainty shocks when the precautionary pricing channel is operative. We show that, in the absence of real imperfections, the optimal monetary policy fully stabilizes the output gap and inflation, implying no policy trade-offs. Our result suggests that precautionary pricing matters only insofar as expected inflation is volatile. Thus, a simple Taylor rule that places high weight on inflation leads to a stabilized output gap, thereby attaining the “divine coincidence”.     

Average-cost pricing: Some evidence and implications

We present new survey evidence on pricing behavior for more than 14,000 European firms, and study its macroeconomic implications. Among firms that are price setters, roughly 75% respond that their prices are set as a markup on total costs, a business practice termed “full cost pricing”. Only 25% set prices as markups over variable or marginal costs. Moreover, using industry data for the U.S., we find that the correlation between changes in output prices and changes in variable input prices is significantly lower when fixed costs are likely to be more important.Since our results are similar to the findings in the classic and controversial paper of Hall and Hitch (1939) and subsequent survey evidence, we believe it worth studying the implications of full cost pricing for macroeconomics. We first propose a problem for the firm where full cost pricing can arise as optimizing behavior. We embed this problem, featuring an occasionally binding constraint, into a simple general equilibrium model. We show that when the model is hit by a shock that makes the constraint binding, the response of endogenous variables is amplified significantly more than it would be under the unconstrained regime.     

Cost savings in unit-based pricing of household waste: The case of The Netherlands

We estimate the effects of four unit-based pricing systems on waste collected in Dutch municipalities. Unit-based pricing is shown to be effective in reducing unsorted and compostable waste and in stimulating recyclable waste. If the estimations are corrected for differences in environmental activism between municipalities the effects are still large but significantly lower. The bag- and weight-based systems perform equally and far better compared with the frequency- and volume-based systems. This is interesting, as administrative costs are significantly lower for the bag-based system. Finally, unit-based pricing has no effect on the amounts of waste collected in surrounding municipalities.     

消费者寻求多样化与企业定价竞争

消费者寻求多样化的购买行为会对寡头企业之间的价格竞争和经济效率产生重要影响。文章研究发现,针对消费者寻求多样化的购买行为,企业会对忠诚的消费者给予价格优惠,而对新顾客索取高价;消费者寻求多样化购买行为弱化了企业两期价格竞争,导致"默契合谋";而以两期统一定价为基准的经济效率分析显示,歧视定价机制促进了企业间竞争,导致消费者剩余增加,企业利润减少。     

Asset pricing with adaptive learning

We study the extent to which self-referential adaptive learning can explain stylized asset pricing facts in a general equilibrium framework. In particular, we analyze the effects of recursive least squares and constant gain algorithms in a production economy and a Lucas type endowment economy. We find that (a) recursive least squares learning has almost no effects on asset price behavior, since the algorithm converges relatively fast to rational expectations, (b) constant gain learning may contribute towards explaining the stock price and return volatility as well as the predictability of excess returns in the endowment economy but (c) in the production economy the effects of constant gain learning are mitigated by the persistence induced by capital accumulation. We conclude that in the context of these two commonly used models, standard linear self-referential learning does not resolve the asset pricing puzzles observed in the data.     

On fair allocations

This paper examines the effects of fairness on economic behavior and allocations, where fairness is defined as the absence of envy among consumers. We use the benefit function to investigate the welfare cost of fairness. We show how fairness generates a form of altruism, captured by a “fair expenditure” function that depends on the distribution of welfare. We define the most efficient fair allocations and explore the implications of fairness for economic behavior, pricing and redistribution policies.     

社保基金投资组合的 定价效率和投资风险研究 基于股价同步性的实证检验

笔者利用2007年到2013年各个季度我国沪深两市A股交易数据,以股票价格收益率与沪深300指数收益率的同步性衡量股票的定价效率,通过实证模型分析社保基金投资对股票定价效率的影响。研究表明,当市场处于金融危机前后的牛市和熊市时,社保基金投资对股票定价效率无显著影响,当市场处于较平稳的阶段时,社保基金能显著提高股票的定价效率并降低了投资风险。这说明社保基金参与资本市场投资能提高我国资本市场的有效性。     

Pricing inputs to induce efficient Make-or-Buy decisions

We investigate input pricing regimes that induce efficient Make-or-Buy decisions by entrants when there is constant returns in the production of the input(s) and simultaneous noncooperative price competition in downstream retail markets. Necessary and sufficient conditions for efficient Make-or-Buy decisions are derived. The necessary condition shows that input prices are relevant for Make-or-Buy decisions except under restrictive and often unverifiable assumptions on the demand structure, and that the least informationally-demanding way to ensure efficient Make-or-Buy decisions is to price inputs at marginal cost provided changes in the entrant’s cost have a “normal” effect on the entrant’s profit. The conditions also show that pricing the incumbent’s input at the entrant’s marginal cost always ensures efficient Make- or-Buy decisions. The extent to which input prices can depart from marginal cost while still inducing efficient Make-or-Buy decisions increases with the efficiency differential between the incumbent and entrant and with the demand displacement ratio.      

What Josef Steindl means to my generation

Research over the last 10 to 15 years on the possibility of a Sraffa—Keynes synthesis has, in part, been concerned with clarifying the concept of a normal rate of capacity utilization, as well as its role in price determination and its interdependence with relative prices. This paper examines some of the key implications of the interdependence between the normal rate of capacity utilization and relative prices for disequilibrium pricing, specifically, target return pricing. In particular, the question arises as to consistency between the idea of a normal rate of utilization interpreted as a profit-maximizing choice by producers and the notion of a predetermined target rate of return. Interestingly, this issue of consistency raises the possibility that far from conceiving of the Post-Keynesian and Sraffian approaches to price theory as incompatible, they may instead be seen more appropriately as representing an alternatively short-run and long-run focus on the pricing decision. This view also carries with it implications about the role for demand and supply conditions in disequilibrium pricing, where this role takes the form of movements in demand relative to capacity within and between sectors affecting relative prices.