THE COST OF WASHING CLOTHES: SOURCES OF VARIATION

This paper develops the national average cost of washing clothes by examining consumer research data on the frequencies of using various water temperature settings and laundry additives and by utilizing national surveys of laundry product prices. Variations in these costs are shown to be significantly affected by three variables: (1) costs increase with family size due to the higher number of loads washed, (2) costs increase in areas where phosphate detergents are not available due to an increased use of hot water and laundry additives and (3) costs increase in harder water areas due to an increased use of hot water and fabric softener. The average increased cost for energy and laundry additives per family due to the nonavailability of phosphate detergents exceeds $11.00 per year. In addition to this amount, increased wear on washing machine parts and fabrics from the use of carbonate-built detergents significantly increases the costs to consumers in nonphosphate areas.     

A survey of commercial laundry detergents - how effective are they?: Part III: powders,liquids and hard water

The effectiveness of 42 detergents, 11 non-phosphate containing powdered detergents, 12 phosphate containing powdered detergents, 11 unbuilt liquid detergents and eight built liquid detergents, of varying formulations, in cleaning a standard soiled fabric in water of varying hardness was evaluated. Powdered detergents were found to be significantly affected only at very high water hardness levels. There was no significant difference between washing in warm and hot water for the liquid detergents, except for a melaleucaoil based detergent which performed significantly better in hot water. Increasing water hardness had no significant effect on liquid detergents. Powdered detergents performed better than liquid detergents in cleaning the standard soiled fabric. While no one detergent was significantly better than the others, in general, washing with detergents that contained phosphates did give somewhat better results in warm water. Detergents that contained bleach as an additive did not result in whiter fabric.     

The effects of water hardness level on washing quality using commercial laundry detergents

The water hardnesses were determined for 10 samples of water. A wide variation of water hardnesses were found ranging from very soft to very hard. The effectiveness of six commercial laundry detergents of different formulations were evaluated. The detergent containing a non-ionic surfactant with a phosphate builder was found to give the best whiteness results, regardless of water hardness. Because of the possible environmental problems associated with the use of phosphates, consumers may wish to select the next most effective detergent formulation, which varied between water samples.     

Use of 12 groups of foods in households differing in size,income and receipt of food stamps

Using data from the Nationwide Food Consumption Surrey, 1977–78, this study assessed the influence of household size and composition, household income, and eligibility/participation in the Food Stamp Programme (FSP) on the weekly money value of specified food groups used from the household food supply. Mean money values of foods by food groups were calculated for various sample partitions and proportions of total food value allocated to the 12 specified food groups were analysed using ordinary least squares regression. Results indicated that household size had a statistically significant impact on household food consumption patterns. As per capita household income increased, percentage allocations to high-cost meats and beverages generally increased while percentage allocations for the other 10 food groups decreased. The money value of food used per equivalent food energy need increased with decreasing household size and with increasing per capita household income. These relationships occurred for total food and for most of the specified food groups. Households that participated in the FSP used food with higher money value per-equivalent food energy need than did households who were eligible but did not participate in the FSP.     

Clean laundry with pure conscience—A study on laundry practices among Finnish consumers

The previous study concerning laundry practices in Finland was published 16 years ago. Since that time, many pro‐environmental debates have been going on and sustainable actions have been implemented in many areas of individual lives and households. The purpose of this study is to investigate the textile laundering practices of Finnish consumers and their attitudes toward clothing care procedures. This study discusses how laundry habits could be developed into a more sustainable direction. The data for this research were gathered through an online enquiry that consisted of structured multiple‐choice questions. The data were obtained from 1,841 persons of whom 97.5% were women (n = 1,795). The data were analyzed by statistical means using the SPSS program. The data show that, despite media attention and debate about textile care procedures, there still are factors in laundering that burden the environment. From a sustainability point of view, some improvements exist when comparing to the situation 16 years ago, but washing machines still are seldom filled to their full capacity and consumers, being unaware of water hardness, administer excessive amounts of detergent. The current life situations of the household members seem to be major factors influencing laundry habits and sustainable actions. Especially, young people and families with children would benefit from information and instructions on laundry practices. Topics could contain knowledge about water hardness and proper dosing of detergent, filling the washing machine, washing temperatures, drying methods, and saving energy. Furthermore, general promotion of gender equality is important because household work and laundering is strikingly women‐performed work.     

Costs of unintentional injuries among children in an urban slum community in Kampala city,Uganda

Abstract

Unintentional injuries cause deaths, disabilities, productivity and financial losses and disproportionately affect children in low-income settings yet their cost remains under studied. This study determined the household out-of-pocket expenditure and missed school attendance due to unintentional childhood injuries in a Ugandan slum. We used a cross-sectional household survey design. Data were collected on occurrence and associated costs of unintentional injuries during a one-year period from July 2014 to June 2015. A total of 706 (44.7%) children who had suffered from injuries were reported in the one year period. More male children (N?=?415, 58.7%) suffered injuries than females (N?=?291, 41.2%). The average out-of-pocket expenditure on treating an injury was US $24.1 [standard deviation (SD)?=?±$62.8] and mean school days lost were 25 days (SD?=?±51.8). Road traffic injuries (RTIs) resulted in higher costs [mean difference was US $51.1 (95% CI: $11.4–$90.8)] compared to injuries that, for example, occurred at school. In a Ugandan slum community, unintentional childhood injuries resulted in high out-of-pocket expenditures and missed school attendance. The costs varied widely depending on external causes of the injury. These findings highlight the need to invest in population level injury prevention interventions to reduce injury costs by households.     

Comparative study of phosphate and non-phosphate detergents

A comparison of three different detergents was made by evaluating their properties of soil removal, soil redeposition and calcium carbonate deposition. The detergents included a phosphate granular detergent, a non-phosphate, carbonate built granular detergent and an unbuilt liquid detergent. The local water conditions were moderately hard and clay type soils were used. Detergency was evaluated on the basis of both visual and instrumental colour changes. In effecting soil removal, clay stained fabrics laundered with the phosphate detergent retained only a small amount of soil, while fabrics laundered with the two non-phosphate detergents showed heavier staining. In preventing soil redeposition, the phosphate detergent produced almost no visible redeposition; the unbuilt and carbonate built detergents ranked correspondingly lower. In assessing calcium carbonate deposition, the phosphate and unbuilt detergents showed little or no change, while the carbonate detergent continued to build up deposits with laundering. In summary, the phosphate detergent ranked highest in overall performance, with correspondingly lesser performance from the unbuilt and carbonate detergents.     

Detergent residues in textiles

The purpose of this study was to determine concentrations of detergent residues in textiles washed with three types of detergents. One detergent contained phosphate. In the other two (concentrated or ecological detergents) phosphate had been replaced by zeolite, which contains silicates. The textiles were washed using two programmes for coloured materials (at 60°C). The programmes differed with regard to volume of rinse water and number of rinsings. Detergent residues in textiles were determined chemically. Zeolite particles were determined electron microscopically. The results showed that most of the detergent residues remaining in textile strips were anionic tensides. They increased in proportion to the quantity of detergent used for washing. The least residues were left by concentrated detergents. Anionic tensides are suspected of causing skin irritation, probably allergy in atopic persons. Zeolite particles may irritate skin mechanically or cause through irritation respiratory distress. Washing programmes using less rinse water than other programmes increased detergent residues by 30%. It is concluded that there is a positive linear relationship between concentration of detergent and residues in textiles, and a negative linear relationship between water volume and residues in textiles after laundering. This could be of considerable importance from a health point of view and should be evaluated before any detergent is marketed. A methodology combining different standardized methods for analysing detergent residues in textiles was developed in this study.     

A survey of commercial laundry detergents – how effective are they? Part I: powders

The effectiveness of 11 non-phosphate containing powdered detergents and 12 phosphate containing powdered detergents, of varying formulations, in cleaning a standard soiled fabric in soft water (5 ppm) were evaluated. It was found that in soft water there were no differences between washing with either phosphate or non-phosphate detergent. In general, washing with detergents which contained phosphates did give somewhat better results in warm water. Detergents that contained bleach as an additive did not result in a whiter fabric.     

The Payoff to America from Globalisation

This article summarizes the economic payoff to the United States from its postwar trade opening and estimates the potential future gains from more opening going forward. To quantify these gains, we survey different methodologies and estimates. We find that trade opening since World War II has added between $800 billion to $1.4 trillion to the US economy, or about $7,000 to $13,000 per household. More speculative estimates of the potential additional gains from removing the rest of US trade barriers range from $400 billion to $1.3 trillion, or about $4,000 to $12,000 per household. Since trade opening permanently raises national income, these gains are enjoyed annually. Trade opening inevitably entails adjustment costs. We estimate that the lifetime cost of all worker dislocations that have been triggered by expanded trade in the United States could be as high as $54 billion, although probably less. The permanent gains from past and potential liberalization easily swamp the modest sums necessary to alleviate the temporary pains of adjustment. In the future as in the past, free trade can significantly raise income – and quality of life – in America.     

The economic impact of a household product: the use of nitrilotriacetic acid

Purchase,¹ in her review of laundry practices, concluded that there was significant increased cost due to the banning of phosphate detergents. The cost calculation was, in all likelihood, significantly inflated. A review of her methodology and assumptions, and those of related studies, provides significant adjustments to her conclusions. This issue is important to home economists and environmentalists. The recalculation demonstrates that these interests are less in conflict than Purchase's data would indicate.     

The welfare impact of implicit income generated from childcare in home-based employment

For households that take care of their children when working at home, the income earned from home-based employment is twofold. While visible money income is generated from the paid employment, there is a certain amount of invisible income generated from performing childcare at the same time. The purpose of this study was to estimate the invisible income generated from performing childcare when working at home, and its impact on household welfare change at both micro and macro levels. The results show that in 1988, for a typical home-based worker who took care of his/her children when working at home, the Hicksian compensating and the Hicksian equivalent variation were about $2564·53 and $1651·87 respectively. At the aggregate level, for the nine states included in this study, a point estimate of the total Hicksian equivalent variation was about 80·5 million. This means, if these households could not take care of their children when working, 80·5 million dollars would need to be given to them in order to keep them as well off.     

The perception of Ghanaian consumers of textiles and clothing labels

A structured questionnaire was used to collect data on 105 (53·3% women, 46·7% men) workers in establishments in and around Legon in Accra, Ghana, about their perception of textiles and clothing labels. About 80% were aged between 24 and 44 years and 60% were educated beyond secondary school level. Those who looked for labels while shopping for fabrics were 75%, whereas 83% looked for labels when selecting ready-made clothing to determine the quality, suitability, the fit and the care to be given to the clothes. Chi-square analysis indicated no significant difference between the sexes with regard to perception of textiles and clothing labels. Information items required on labels indicated by the respondents, in order of preference, were fibre content, size/width, manufacturer's/brand name, price, care instructions and country of origin. The Ghana Standards Board (GSB), Ghana Consumers' Association and the Home Science Department at Legon are to assist in enforcing labels on all textiles and clothing. This will enable consumers to shop wisely and get their money's worth. Illiterate consumers are to be studied to determine their criteria for judging the quality of clothing at the point of purchase. This could be used to develop labels for them.     

The Africa Growth and Opportunity Act and its Rules of Origin: Generosity Undermined?

This paper describes the United States recently enacted Africa Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA) and assesses its quantitative impact on African exports. The AGOA expands the scope of preferential access of Africa's exports to the United States in key areas such as clothing. However, its medium‐term benefits – estimated at about US$100‐$140 million, an 8−11 per cent addition to current non‐oil exports – would have been nearly five times greater (US$540 million) if no restrictive conditions had been imposed on the terms of market access. The most important of these conditions are the rules of origin with which African exporters of clothing must comply to benefit from duty‐free access.     

Economic and Environmental Benefits of Eliminating Log Export Bans – The Case of Costa Rica

An increasing number of tropical timber‐producing nations have enacted bans on export of logs arguing that this will reduce deforestation, expand downstream wood processing and improve the scale efficiency of domestic processing, create jobs and retain more value‐added nationally. The theoretical literature is clear that trade restrictions are generally welfare reducing (except in special cases such as when there is a potential for an optimal export tax). At best, a log export ban is a second‐best policy tool for reducing deforestation and addressing the associated environmental externalities. In overall terms, the suggestion that log export bans can achieve the objectives expected of them is dubious. However, very little quantitative evidence exists to demonstrate this claim and the paper attempts to address this gap by looking at the economic and environmental impacts of eliminating a log export ban in Costa Rica. The authors argue that eliminating the export ban is Pareto improving and could generate economic gains as high as $14 million per annum with the possibility of relatively modest environmental benefits.     

Understanding bottled water consumption in a high‐poverty context: empirical evidence from a small town in Guatemala

This research investigated the determinants of bottled water consumption using household survey data from a small, poor town in Guatemala. Hurdle (two‐part) models were estimated to account for 73.3% of sampled households that did not consume bottled water. Findings indicated that the vast majority of respondents perceived minimal health risks from drinking bottled water. In contrast, few respondents (3.2%) believed that tap water is totally safe to drink. Estimation results indicated that bottled water consumption was positively associated to health risk perceptions, household income, education and market access. Household size had a negative effect on the likelihood of consuming bottled water. However, once the household had decided to consume bottled water, its consumption increased with each additional household member.     

A comparative study of water usage in metered and unmetered households

The purpose of this research was to investigate the water usage in metered and unmetered households. The work also examined consumer attitudes towards water usage, including the belief of the need to use water more efficiently and the motivation to do so. Data were obtained by a self-administered questionnaire from 89 households in the Trafford area of Greater Manchester in the winter of 1995/6. This has provided information on ownership levels and age of water-using domestic appliances and outdoor water-using equipment. Although the survey showed some consumer awareness of eco-labelling, actual knowledge was low in both metered and unmetered households. Those respondents who thought water metering did, or would, encourage greater water efficiency were generally aware of how savings could be achieved. Metered households showed a stronger belief in the benefits of water economy. Twenty households each monitored their water usage for 7 consecutive days. A second questionnaire, aimed at clarifying practices, was then completed. This has provided information on total domestic water usage and variations in the components of water demand. Although there was a wide range of values in both metered and unmetered households, the frequency of use of appliances and equipment and per capita consumption were found to be related to household size. This showed larger households benefiting from an economy of scale. Metered households in this survey had a mean water consumption of 124·19 L/person/day compared with 137·28 L/person/day in unmetered households.     

Resource use: the complexity of time and energy management in clothing maintenance

The research study examined time management and energy consumption with respect to clothing care. The investigation analysed data and information obtained in the NE-113 Family Time-Use Study collected in 1977–1978. Differences were found between urban and rural households and among different states. Occupational types of home manager, day of the week, education and age of children were variables accounting for differences in clothing care activities. The results have significance for a better understanding of how modem households meet the demands of clothing care management.     

Price-Anderson act declared unconstitutional: The decision and its effects on nuclear power

In March 1977, the $560 million limit on liability in the Price-Anderson Act was declared unconstitutional. The Price-Anderson Act sets forth a combination private-public insurance and compensation system for handling risks associated with commercial nuclear operations. The limit was found to violate the due process and equal protection provisions of the Fifth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution. This paper examines the salient points of the decision which include: (a) the effects of nuclear plant operations on the plaintiffs; (b) the dependence of nuclear power development on the Price-Anderson Act; (c) the plaintiff's right to bring suit; and (d) the rationale for declaring the Act unconstitutional. The potential effects include the possibility that many utilities and suppliers of nuclear plant components will terminate their nuclear business, the availability of capital funds for nuclear plants will be reduced, and that cost of capital will be increased to reflect the greater risk of nuclear development.     

Consumer laundry practices in Germany

Sustainability is a guiding principle for a responsible, future‐oriented 21st century lifestyle and this already begins in private households with the daily household tasks. Approximately 25% of an average household's electricity consumption is required to do the laundry and dishwashing – 5% alone is for washing clothes with a corresponding energy consumption of 6 billion kilowatt hours. In addition, 600 000 tonnes of detergent and 330 million cubic metres of water are used for textile care in Germany. These figures provide the rationale for the scientific study of current practices of using washing machines and for a resulting estimate of the latent energy‐saving potential in German households. In the context of the in‐home study presented here, 236 private households throughout Germany were studied with respect to their washing practices and existing knowledge about topics on the sustainable, energy‐saving use of their washing machines. Overall, across all households 2867 wash cycles were individually recorded and subsequently analysed over a 4‐week period. The results of this study show that washing machines tend to be underloaded, and therefore maximum loading of the machines could lead to a reduction of wash cycles per household. With respect to detergent dosage, it was determined that the consumer does not adjust the dosage to the textile type, load size, soil level and/or water hardness, and this can lead to under‐ or overdosing depending on prevailing conditions. Finally, the selection of the wash temperature showed a 90°C/95°C programme was only chosen in 2.3% of all recorded wash cycles, however, every fourth cycle was completed at 60°C. Therefore, adjusting the load size and detergent dosage as well as selecting the right wash temperature are key themes to be taken into account in future consumer communication about energy‐saving households.