Organizational Learning in Cooperative Alliances: Some Case Studies in Biotechnology

Dedicated biotechnology firms (DBFs) have played an important role in commercializing biotechnology. They emerged first in the US and, after a 5-year time lag, they also appeared in Europe. Faced with long and costly product lead times, DBFs raised money by entering into research contracts, mainly with large chemical and pharmaceutical companies. These coopertive research alliances have not vanished as biotechnology has matured and are more in evidence today than they were in the early dasy of the commercialization of biotechnology. This paper investigates how and why large and small companies enter research collaborations, what they learn from working together, and the effects on European competitiveness.     

Organizational Learning in Cooperative Alliances: Some Case Studies in Biotechnology

Dedicated biotechnology firms (DBFs) have played an important role in commercializing biotechnology. They emerged first in the US and, after a 5-year time lag, they also appeared in Europe. Faced with long and costly product lead times, DBFs raised money by entering into research contracts, mainly with large chemical and pharmaceutical companies. These coopertive research alliances have not vanished as biotechnology has matured and are more in evidence today than they were in the early dasy of the commercialization of biotechnology. This paper investigates how and why large and small companies enter research collaborations, what they learn from working together, and the effects on European competitiveness.     

Export strategies in the computer industry: Japan and the USA

Japan's computer manufacturers realize that they need more than a new generation of software (or hardware) for success in world markets. The missing ingredients are primarily multinational busines experience factors, which have worked to the past advantage of US companies. Japan's past export successes — textiles, steel, consumer electronics—have come with products that, unlike computers, could be sold through existing distribution channels. Realizing their disadvantages in selling computer systems worldwide, the Japanese designed the heavily publicized fifth-generation project seeking technology that could serve as a wedge into markets where US-based multinationals had already become firmly entrenched. For this as for other joint government-industry R&D projects in Japan, the indirect effects will be at least as important as the technological outcomes; asking whether the fifth-generation project could have reached particular technical objectives poses the wrong question. In terms of technological capability, Japan could emerge as a formidable rival of the USA in world computer markets. Given the international presence of US companies large and small, this will not be as quick or as easy as in other Japanese export industries: Japan will continue to have far more difficulty exporting computer systems than VCRs or integrated circuits.     

Export strategies in the computer industry: Japan and the USA

Japan's computer manufacturers realize that they need more than a new generation of software (or hardware) for success in world markets. The missing ingredients are primarily multinational busines experience factors, which have worked to the past advantage of US companies. Japan's past export successes — textiles, steel, consumer electronics—have come with products that, unlike computers, could be sold through existing distribution channels. Realizing their disadvantages in selling computer systems worldwide, the Japanese designed the heavily publicized fifth-generation project seeking technology that could serve as a wedge into markets where US-based multinationals had already become firmly entrenched. For this as for other joint government-industry R&D projects in Japan, the indirect effects will be at least as important as the technological outcomes; asking whether the fifth-generation project could have reached particular technical objectives poses the wrong question. In terms of technological capability, Japan could emerge as a formidable rival of the USA in world computer markets. Given the international presence of US companies large and small, this will not be as quick or as easy as in other Japanese export industries: Japan will continue to have far more difficulty exporting computer systems than VCRs or integrated circuits.     

The Role of Multinational Corporations and National States in the Globalization of Innovatory Capacity: The European Perspective

The recent ability of multinational corporations (MNCs) to develop integrated technological networks, increasingly motivated within Europe by the further progress of economic integration, is argued to affect and be affected by national technological competitiveness. This paper examines the precise geographical dispersion of technological activity in Europe by the largest MNCs, and the potential impact of those MNCs on the level and structure of the technological capacity of European home and host countries, using data on patents granted to the world largest firms in the US. Since the late 1980s, the majority of the technological activity conducted in foreign-owned research facilities located in Europe, has taken place in affiliates of European-owned companies. This paper examines whether the much higher degree of internationalization of corporate technology in European MNCs than in their US or Japanese counterparts is attributable to cross-border activity within Europe, or extends to European-owned research facilities in the US and Japan. While intra-European activity matters more for Dutch, Belgian and Swedish MNCs (and in the electrical equipment and computing industries), whose strategies are substantially based on corporate European integration, investments in the US are of greater significance for French and Swiss companies, and of the greatest importance for German and British firms (and in the chemical and pharmaceutical industries), representing a more widely 'globalized' technological strategy.     

美国生物医药产业R＆D的总体特征运行模式及发展趋势

美国生物医药产业研发实力在全球医药产业界仍然居于绝对优势地位,连续多年R＆D投资持续高速增长,为新药创新活动提供了强大的技术支撑;但是深入分析其新药类型,可以发现：美国生物医药产业研发创新仍呈明显的“渐进式创新”特征,其产业整体上选择了渐进式创新和研发外包的创新模式;研发外包（Outsourcing）以及研发业务离岸外包（Offshore Outsourcing）是当今美国生物医药产业R＆D活动最重要的运行模式和发展趋势。     

The relationship between a firm's patent quality and its market value — The case of US pharmaceutical industry

This study examined the relationships between corporate market value and four patent quality indicators - relative patent position (RPP), revealed technology advantage (RTA), Herfindahl-Hirschman Index of patents (HHI of patents), and patent citations - in the US pharmaceutical industry. The results showed that RPP and patent citations were positively associated with corporate market value, but HHI of patents was negatively associated with it, while RTA was not significantly related to it. Thus, if pharmaceutical companies want to enhance their market value, they should increase their leading positions in their most important technological fields, cultivate more diversity of technological capabilities, and raise innovative value of their patents. In addition, this study found that market value of pharmaceutical companies with high patent counts was higher than that of pharmaceutical companies with low patent counts, and suggested that pharmaceutical companies with low patent counts should increase RPP in their most technological fields, decrease HHI of patents, or raise patent citations to further enhance their market value. Furthermore, this study developed a classification for the pharmaceutical companies to divide them into four types, and provided some suggestions to them.     

Cutting-sdge technologies computer software: strategic industry

US- owned firms account for more than 60% of worldwide computer software sales, and US capability in software tachnology is widely viewed as well ahead of that in other countries. However, the US lead cannot be expected to last. Nor are policies yet in place intended to protect exisitng advantages. Japanese firms have demonstrated their capabilities in hardware. Japanese firms have demonstrated their capabilities in hardware. Japanses exxecutives know they must develop better software in order (1) to use their own computer systems to best advantge, and (2) to sell more hardware in export markets. The next several devades will see a gradual slippage in the US position, particularly as foreign software suppliers move away from custom programming an realted services, their present focuse. A narrowing gap between US and foreign industries could prefigure a competitive challenge in software, development not unlike earlier challenges in microelectronics. Better software,. in addition, will have impacts elsewhere.In Japan's case, for example, improvements in softwarte should lead to productivity enhancements throughout the economy, improving Japan's ability to tmpete internationally.     

Innovation Policy in Search of an Economic Foundation: The Case of Research Partnerships in the United States

US- owned firms account for more than 60% of worldwide computer software sales, and US capability in software tachnology is widely viewed as well ahead of that in other countries. However, the US lead cannot be expected to last. Nor are policies yet in place intended to protect exisitng advantages. Japanese firms have demonstrated their capabilities in hardware. Japanese firms have demonstrated their capabilities in hardware. Japanses exxecutives know they must develop better software in order (1) to use their own computer systems to best advantge, and (2) to sell more hardware in export markets. The next several devades will see a gradual slippage in the US position, particularly as foreign software suppliers move away from custom programming an realted services, their present focuse. A narrowing gap between US and foreign industries could prefigure a competitive challenge in software, development not unlike earlier challenges in microelectronics. Better software,. in addition, will have impacts elsewhere.In Japan's case, for example, improvements in softwarte should lead to productivity enhancements throughout the economy, improving Japan's ability to tmpete internationally.     

How technological innovation affects the structure of an industry: entrepreneurship evolution in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical industry since 1980

Challenges faced by the biotechnology and pharmaceutical industry, including reduced R&D productivity and the expiration of drugs that are high in demand, are recently being addressed through technological innovation. Such innovations are highly likely to change the structure and functioning of the industry. Since 2000, biotechnology and pharmaceutical companies have actively made strategic alliance, and technological innovations have changed the source of innovation from R&D to entrepreneurship within the industry. In this study, we identify the evolution of entrepreneurship and discuss the changes caused by technological advancements since 1980 by analysing patterns of exporting and acquiring technology data from Medtrack. Over difference period, biopharmaceutical firms have gained new knowledge and improved technology, and have implemented this newly acquired knowledge and innovation to introduce drugs to the market.     

Tracing interdisciplinarity of converging technologies at the nanoscale: A critical analysis of recent nanotechnosciences

Besides 'innovation', 'interdisciplinarity' is one of the most popular buzzwords frequently used in present-day science policy. At the same time, however, 'interdisciplinarity' is vague and misty; the term is not well defined. In order to clarify its meaning, I classify different types of interdisciplinarity. By making use of analytical classification I show that a specific type of interdisciplinarity is involved in the nanotechnology, biotechnology, information technology and cognitive science (NBIC) scenario on converging technologies (Roco-Bainbridge report of the US National Science Foundation). I argue that the NBIC scenario is based on a 'technoobject-oriented interdisciplinarity'. This type of interdisciplinarity will be contrasted with the research program of the European Union on converging technologies (CTEKS) that widens the circles of convergence and aims to promote a different ('problem-oriented') type of interdisciplinarity.     

The Indian Challenge: The Evolution of a Successful New Global Strategy in the Pharmaceutical Industry

UK and European public policy has sought to encourage young biotechnology firms adopt American-inspired strategies. The venture-backed start-up associated with Silicon Valley and Route 128 in Boston, has been the preferred model. These policies have had limited success thus far. Indian companies are evolving indigenous business models that are achieving success within the pharmaceutical industry. Some Indian pharmaceutical firms, established initially as low cost suppliers, are investing in building innovative capabilities. This paper analyses the strategies and trajectories of a number of Indian pharmaceutical companies that are expanding successfully in Western markets. It assesses the local and international contextual factors that have underpinned the strategies and discusses relevant conceptual frameworks.     

The Role of Multinational Corporations and National States in the Globalization of Innovatory Capacity: The European Perspective

The recent ability of multinational corporations (MNCs) to develop integrated technological networks, increasingly motivated within Europe by the further progress of economic integration, is argued to affect and be affected by national technological competitiveness. This paper examines the precise geographical dispersion of technological activity in Europe by the largest MNCs, and the potential impact of those MNCs on the level and structure of the technological capacity of European home and host countries, using data on patents granted to the world largest firms in the US. Since the late 1980s, the majority of the technological activity conducted in foreign-owned research facilities located in Europe, has taken place in affiliates of European-owned companies. This paper examines whether the much higher degree of internationalization of corporate technology in European MNCs than in their US or Japanese counterparts is attributable to cross-border activity within Europe, or extends to European-owned research facilities in the US and Japan. While intra-European activity matters more for Dutch, Belgian and Swedish MNCs (and in the electrical equipment and computing industries), whose strategies are substantially based on corporate European integration, investments in the US are of greater significance for French and Swiss companies, and of the greatest importance for German and British firms (and in the chemical and pharmaceutical industries), representing a more widely ‘globalized’ technological strategy.     

What Determines the Decision to Implement EMAS? A European Firm Level Study

Empirical research on the characteristics of environmentally responsive companies has focussed on US and Japanese companies. For Europe, which is commonly considered as the greenest of the three major markets, similar research is lacking. This paper seeks to fill this gap by empirically investigating business and financial characteristics, stakeholder pressures and public policies to distinguish companies that have implemented the European Eco-Management and Audit System (EMAS) from a unique firm-level dataset of European publicly quoted companies. We find that the EMAS participation decision is positively influenced by the solvency ratio, the share of non-current liabilities, the average labour cost and the absolute company size as well as the relative size of a company compared to its sector average. The profit margin exerts a negative influence. We further find that companies whose headquarters is located in a country that actively encourages EMAS have a higher probability of participation. Finally, this paper suggests that rather than attracting other kinds of companies, a favourable institutional context succeeds in convincing more of the same kind of companies to participate. The authors thank anonymous referees for providing helpful comments and suggestions on earlier drafts of this paper.     

The evolution and performance of biotechnology regional systems of innovation

The paper maintains that biotechnology regions develop as complexsystems: they start with star scientists in research universities,generating knowledge spillovers, then move progressively towardsregional technology markets. In the process they attract venturecapital (or modify the behaviour of existing venture capitalfirms with the addition of biotechnology portfolios). The routinesof universities are also modified with the addition of intellectualproperty and technology transfer offices intervening as sellersin the newly created knowledge markets. The paper also considerswhether companies located in regional agglomerations grow fasterthan isolated ones, and whether companies spun-off from universitieshave a better performance than start-ups. The study is basedon about 90 Canadian-based publicly quoted biotechnology companies.     

研发导向型制药企业外部资源整合行为探究

制药企业在发展过程中需要有效整合外部研发与营销资源。针对我国制药行业的特殊境遇,以海正药业、双鹭药业为例,从发展模式、资源整合途径两方面对比分析了这两类企业的殊同。     

Business process re-engineering: experiences in R&D

This study presents information drawn from leading transnational organizations headquartered in the US that are, to different degrees, involved in restructuring their R&D. Interviews were conducted with three companies in the chemical/pharmaceutical industry and three in electronics/information technology. All companies interviewed agreed on the need to organize their R&D more effectively in order to meet consumer demands and respond to competitive pressure. There are significant differences in the extent to which each company is involved in organizational change as well as their approach to such changes. The interview findings indicate that global re-engineering and business transformation programmes are being carried out. We identify the application of such approachs, men though thg may be initiated under other names.     

Explaining the Generation and Performance of Intersector Technology Cooperation: A Survey of the Literature

Pharmaceutical companies are facing several major interrelated challenges, the most strategic being the decline in R&;D productivity resulting in empty product pipelines to replace products nearing patent expiry. A common response has been mergers and acquisition of competitors and biotechnology firms, but rather than resolving the problems, this has created new ones. While biotechnology promises to reshape the pharmaceutical industry, it too faces challenges: the industry as a whole is unprofitable and there is uncertainty regarding market acceptance of its products. This paper examines the current issues in the two industries, and describes a scenario process resulting in the development of a set of scenarios depicting four possible future paths along which the pharmaceutical industry may develop over the next 15 years.