The Formation of Fairness Perceptions in the Cooperation between Entrepreneurs and Universities

For entrepreneurs who intend to exploit university‐owned technologies, a cooperative relationship with the university is critical. This study aims to better understand this entrepreneur–university cooperation. A key factor influencing the quality of this cooperation is the fairness perception of the entrepreneur. However, little is known about how these fairness perceptions are formed in this context. Therefore, to increase insight in entrepreneur–university cooperation, this study explores the formation of fairness perceptions by entrepreneurs who cooperate with universities (in so‐called university spin‐offs). This study assesses how the rules these entrepreneurs employ to form fairness perceptions differ from fairness rules that have been established in previous studies on organizational justice. The results show that, in addition to established fairness rules, there are also fairness rules that are more specific to this entrepreneurial setting. These specific rules complement the established fairness rules to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the formation of fairness perceptions by entrepreneurs cooperating with a university. Moreover, this study explores to what extent different entrepreneurs form fairness perceptions differently and finds that both experience and relational capital of the entrepreneurs within the university are two key sources of heterogeneity. Overall, this study contributes to the literature by conceptualizing how entrepreneurs form fairness perceptions in cooperating with universities and how this extends established wisdom in organizational justice theory. Moreover, the rules identified in this study provide clues for entrepreneurs who wish to improve their collaboration with universities, and may also apply to the relationships between entrepreneurs and large corporations and between entrepreneurs and venture capitalists.     

Researchers’ willingness to engage in knowledge and technology transfer activities: an exploration of the underlying motivations

Increasingly, universities have become conscious of their important role as centres of knowledge generation and diffusion. Accordingly, they have put in place policies, methods and resources to increase knowledge and technology transfer (KTT) activities. However, succeeding in this endeavour is not that easy. An active involvement of researchers is fundamental. Literature examining researchers’ attitude towards KTT activities is limited, offering a partial view on the subject. This study aims at bringing new light to this issue. First, we identify those factors that influence researchers’ willingness to engage in KTT activities. From a comprehensive literature review, we distinguish between intrinsic motivations, extrinsic motivations and university support and services as critical elements. A scale is developed and validated. Second, the scale is applied to the case of R&D contracts. The sample consists of 249 researchers from one of the biggest Spanish universities. Results suggest that the proposed scale has a good fit, indicating that it can be considered as a good instrument for measuring researchers’ willingness to get involved in KTT activities. Policy implications and directions for future research are provided.     

Plunging into the sea, again? A study of serial entrepreneurship in China

While it stands to reason that serial entrepreneurs—individuals who have founded more than one new venture—should achieve higher levels of success than novices, to date researchers have found little support for this proposition. Is this rather perplexing result only limited to the developed countries in which most research has been conducted? Or is it indicative of a general phenomenon, and hence requesting the need for new theory? We explore these questions by testing the existing theory in two geographic regions in a rapidly emerging transition economy—China. Data from 440 Chinese entrepreneurial ventures suggest that experienced entrepreneurs are better at developing networks, and at managing organizations than novices, but like their counterparts in developed countries, do not necessarily achieve higher levels of venture performance. Implications for theory, as well as for entrepreneurship in the context of transition economies are addressed.     

Why makers make what they make: motivations to contribute to open source hardware development

Open source software (OSS) and hardware (OSH) are two expressions of one broader concept and its related movement. One of the most fundamental questions relating to these phenomena is why developers contribute their private resources to these public goods. While this question has been discussed, theorized, and empirically investigated in the context of OSS, there has been no research so far in the context of OSH. Can we really assume the motivations behind the development of the OSH to be the same as those behind OSS? Based on the self-determination theory (SDT), we provide original insights into the motivations behind contributions to OSH development. We collected data from the most common and active 3D printing communities, which are the main loci of OSH development. We thus have a unique cross-sectional data set with participants from over 30 different countries using all kinds of different OSH platforms. Our analysis reveals several important findings: firstly, the motivations are in some aspects very similar to those in open source software notwithstanding different possibilities, hurdles, and incentives regarding the OSS and OSH. Above all, enjoyment-based intrinsic motivation is a major factor affecting contribution levels. Secondly, among internalized extrinsic motivations, expected private benefits through improving own skills stands out. Thirdly, different factors of internalized extrinsic motivations can have different moderating effects on the effect of enjoyment-based intrinsic motivation. Given the imminent changes in business models throughout manufacturing industries in order to adapt to the challenge that OSH will increasingly pose, our findings have important implications not only for OSH communities and 3D development platforms, but also for businesses that want and probably soon have to engage in open innovation.     

The effects of group size and cooperation on the success of interdisciplinary groups in R & D

After considering the results of earlier reports on productivity in research, the efficiency of research teams in relation to their size, and the connection between communication and success in R & D laboratories, the authors have developed a mathematical model to analyse the qualitative and quantitative relationships between cooperation among researchers and the chances of success interdisciplinary groups may have. As the results show, this model can answer questions like: To what degree does the probability of success of inter-disciplinary research groups depend on the size of the group, the number of disciplines involved and the willingness of the individual members of the group to cooperate with colleagues within the group? or ‘How great is the marginal improvement in the probability of success of an inter-disciplinary group if two members of the group, which did not previously cooperate at all, start to cooperate, and are then joined by the third and so on, until full cooperation is reached? Is it the second, third or fifth researcher who makes the greatest contribution to the success of the group through his decision to Cooperate with the others?’     

The R&D-Marketing Interface in High-Technology Firms

It has become part of the traditional wisdom that good relationships between the R&D and marketing departments are essential for effective new product development. But in so many firms it still just doesn't happen. How come? In this article, three pragmatic researchers, Professors Gupta, Raj, and Wilemon, take another look at what causes the significant barriers that exist at the interface of two of the key product innovation functions. What they discover is disagreement between marketing and R&D people about what they should do together. They also find that R&D people are the more reluctant cooperators. They draw some interesting opinions from the parties as to why the barriers exist.     

Policies and structures for spinning off new companies from research and development organizations#

This paper develops five alternative structural 'models' for formal efforts aimed at spinning off new companies from universities, government laboratories, and other research and development organizations. In various ways the models combine the roles of the technology originator, the entrepreneur, the R&D organization itself, and the venture investor. The paper also presents the policies and structures of technology commercialization operations from investigations at eight R&D organizations in the United States and the United Kingdom. The data indicate that a R&D organization operating in an environment where venture capital and entrepreneurs are readily available (e.g., MIT and Stanford) can appropriately: (1) exercise a low degree of selectivity in choosing technologies for spin-off creation, and (2) provide a low level of support during the spin-off process. The spin-off process is more difficult in environments where venture capital and entrepreneurs are scarce (e.g., ARCH) and mechanisms for high-selectivity and a high level of support must be in place by the R&D organization to compensate for this scarcity.     

Heterogeneity in R&D cooperation strategies

We explore heterogeneities in the determinants of innovating firms' decisions to engage in R&D cooperation, differentiating between four types of cooperation partners: competitors, suppliers, customers, and universities and research institutes (institutional cooperation). We use two matched waves of the Dutch Community Innovation Survey (in 1996 and 1998) and apply system probit estimation. We find that determinants of R&D cooperation differ significantly across cooperation types. The positive impact of firm size, R&D intensity, and incoming source-specific spillovers is weaker for competitor cooperation, reflecting greater appropriability concerns. Institutional spillovers are more generic in nature and positively impact all cooperation types. The results appear robust to potential simultaneity bias.     

Creating a bridge between university and industry in small European countries: the role of the Industrial Liaison Office

The frequent and intermittent need for new scientific knowledge has resulted in an increasing focus on links between industry and academic institutions. This has been particularly pronounced in the flows of knowledge between the two partners, which may lead to considerable diffusion of scientific and technical knowledge, particularly into the small firm sector. This development could be of particular benefit to smaller peripheral economies, which have demonstrated low levels of indigenous industrial technological development. As a result, universities could become increasingly important for local economic development in smaller countries on the periphery of Europe. However, a greater understanding is required of the pro-active role that the university itself can play in developing strong linkages with industry, particularly through mechanisms such as the Industrial Liaison Office (ILO). In particular, there needs to be an examination of the strategies and policies that are undertaken to increase the process of technology transfer from academia into local indigenous business within smaller countries. This paper will therefore examine the role that universities play in the regional economic development in two contrasting small countries of Europe, namely Sweden and Ireland. Drawing on interviews with key individuals in the processes of technology transfer between academia and industry (including ILOs), as well as secondary data, it will examine the general role and function of the industrial liaison office and how this has changed. It will also discuss the involvement of the university in different types of industrial links, the main opportunities and barriers to the development of links between university and industry, the benefits to the university from industrial links, and the perception of industry’s assessment of the relationship with universities. The research will provide valuable insight into the role of universities in developing innovation and entrepreneurship within the smaller and peripheral countries of Europe and will determine whether these universities are undertaking a pro-active role in encouraging the growth of innovative indigenous industry. This may have significant policy implications, especially with regard to the development of specific regional programmes to encourage academic-based entrepreneurship.     

Innovation without me: why employees do (not) participate in organizational innovation communities

A key issue in community research is the set of motivations stimulating individuals to participate and contribute voluntarily to communities. This article examines the motivations of employees, who are traditionally not involved in the innovation process, to (not) participate in organizational innovation communities. Building on an in‐depth single case study, we aim to answer the following research questions: (1) What motivates participants of organizational innovation communities to participate? and (2) What motivates nonparticipants of organizational innovation communities to not participate? We find and categorize multiple factors that motivate non‐research and development employees to participate and to not participate. Moreover, we find an overlap as well as differences in the set of motivations of participants and nonparticipants. With nonparticipants normally being a large but barely explicitly recognized group, we argue that the found deviations contribute to the understanding of motivations in the context of organizational innovation communities and allow for direct design implications for innovation managers.     

Mapping the motivations and intentions of technology orientated entrepreneurs

The role of entrepreneurs in stimulating growth in the small business economy has received significant interest in the last three decades. This growing interest is prompted, in part, by the government’s assumption that the establishment and expansion of existing small firms could be greatly enhanced by the promotion of entrepreneurial education programmes in colleges and universities. Whilst there has been significant interest in the role, type and effect of entrepreneurs in the economy, few studies have examined the effect of entrepreneurial programmes on the progression of an idea through to commercialisation. This is because such research, whilst seemingly desirable, is problematic. Evidence can be gleaned through the development of suitable conceptual frameworks and methods, to assess the role and impact of entrepreneurial programmes on the commercialisation of products or processes, and the enhancement of entrepreneurial capabilities. To address this problem, the research will examine different approaches and frameworks that have been developed and applied hitherto. The objective of this will be to highlight the difficulties in assessing the motivations, cognitive and behavioural changes of entrepreneurs. Also, the research will demonstrate the need to undertake adequate controls, which illustrate possible improvement in entrepreneurial capabilities, networks, and credibility in comparison to students that embarked on courses without entrepreneurial elements. The process will confine itself to business development within the higher education (HEI) context. The MSEC has as its remit to provide opportunity, education, awareness and training to foster entrepreneurship within science and engineering departments across four universities in Greater Manchester. This setting will provide a unique situation in which to investigate the development of germinal technology businesses from the inception of an idea to the point of incubation, prototype development and investment. There is a requirement to understand the needs of the virgin entrepreneur, possible obstacles to commercialisation and the process of new venture creation. The methodology to be adopted has been identified, and forges new ground on combining positivist and phenomenological paradigms. The multi–paradigm approach supports the use of critical incident technique to reveal greater insights in to the personal and cognitive development of virginal entrepreneurs, the suitability of enterprise programmes to act as catalysts for venture creation, and their role in supporting technology transfer. The research will not only confine itself to examining undergraduate and postgraduate projects within MSEC’s business creation unit, but will also continue to assess the experience of entrepreneurs’ when they leave the programme. The research also documents the economic contribution of the programme, in terms of generation of new technology–based firms and the impact of entrepreneurs joining established small firms. Ultimately the aim is to build a long–term picture of the role of enterprise programmes in HEIs that will inform policy and practice.     

How entrepreneurs leverage institutional intermediaries in emerging economies to acquire public resources

Research summary: Governments in emerging economies often use institutional intermediaries to promote entrepreneurship, and bridge the void between ventures and public funding. While prior literature describes what institutional intermediaries do, it leaves open how intermediaries support different types of entrepreneurs. By comparing science park and non‐science park firms in Beijing and across China, we distinguish which entrepreneurs benefit from certification versus capability‐building through the introduction of two new constructs: skill adequacy and context relevance. Broadly, our study adds insights at the nexus of emerging economies and entrepreneurship research, and to the tie formation and institutional intermediaries literatures. Managerial summary: A key dilemma facing entrepreneurs is how to finance their ventures. While entrepreneurs in developed economies can seek VC or angel investment, entrepreneurs in emerging economies often need to pursue potential government funding opportunities. Our study highlights three strategies for acquiring government funding. Well‐connected entrepreneurs can leverage their political ties to acquire such funding. Less‐connected entrepreneurs can leverage science parks that in emerging markets are designed to help governments to identify promising ventures. For returnees whose ample experience abroad may not fit with local ways of doing business, gaining science park admission can certify quality and so ease the path to government funding. For technically skilled local entrepreneurs who lack business skills, science parks can help build such skills, which then ease the path to government funding. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Institutional adversity,external knowledge sources,and new ventures' innovation: An institutional polycentrism theory perspective

Why do some new ventures thrive while others fail? In this study, we investigate the unique relationship between external knowledge sourcing of new ventures and its innovative outcomes, and its contextual embeddedness. The investigation is based on the Knowledge-based view and theory of institutional polycentrism across entrepreneurs, nested in different institutional contexts. Our framework generates hypothesis about the negative impact of higher levels of institutional adversity, on new venture's innovation at the national level. We then found the contingent role of adversity in institutions based on the relationship between external knowledge sourcing and new venture innovation. We examine this question using data from 28,660 entrepreneurs from 47 countries. We use Global Entrepreneurship Monitor, Freedom House, IEF, POLCON and Political Risk Services data for 2009–2013. We apply multilevel estimation framework to test our hypotheses. We find the new ventures that have high level of external knowledge sourcing tend to be more innovative: the ones that search widely through different external sources. Further, we find that the benefits to external knowledge sourcing depend on institutional environmental conditions, however new venture innovation should ensure the external knowledge sourcing are used robustly to develop a resource mechanism to deal with the institutional adversity.     

Types of entrepreneurs and firms: The case of new Spanish firms

The main purpose of this paper is to present an empirical analysis of the sequence relating the performance of the firm to its behavior, which in turn depends upon the origin and personal characteristics of the entrepreneurs. The data are drawn from new Spanish firms. A typology of new entrepreneurs is constructed, based on their basic work aspirations. Each type of entrepreneur is then examined, in terms of the origin and personal characteristics of the members of the class. The results of the study show that significant differences exist among the entrepreneurs and firms of each type, especially in terms of the size of the firm (number of employees) and its evolution over time. The implications of these results, for the theory of entrepreneurship and for the design of policies towards the creation of new firms, are then derived.     

Regulatory issues in regional satellite communications: Towards a USA - Mexico bilateral agreement

This article examines the issues raised by the drawing up of a bilateral agreement for satellite communications between the USA and Mexico. Mexico has been mainly leasing capacity from INTELSAT and is developing its own Morelos satellite system. Both the USA and Mexico are keen to develop transborder satellite telecommunications services, but before coming to an agreement both parties must arrive at a clear definition of the main concepts that will constitute the agreement. Key concepts being analysed are: services classification, the reciprocity principle, economic harm to INTELSAT, and technical harm to INTELSAT.     

An individual‐level assessment of the relationship between spin‐off activities and research performance in universities

One of the most problematic aspects in the creation of spin‐offs by university personnel concerns the relationship between entrepreneurial activity and research activity by researcher‐entrepreneurs. The literature has expressed varying and opposing views as to the nature of the relationship, but very little has been produced to empirically legitimate one position or another. The present work proposes to address this shortcoming by exploring the relationship existing between academic spin‐off generation and the research performance of enterprise founders. The study investigates whether, and to what extent, scientific performance by academic entrepreneurs is different than that of their colleagues, and if the involvement in entrepreneurial activity has an influence on the individual's research activity. The research questions are answered by considering all spin‐offs generated by Italian universities over the period 2001–2008 and evaluating, through a bibliometric approach, the scientific performance of founders relative to that of their colleagues who carry out research in the same field. The data show better scientific performance by the researcher‐entrepreneurs than that of their colleagues, and in addition, although there are some variations across fields, the creation of a spin‐off does not seem, on average, to have negative effects on the scientific performance of the founders.     

How entrepreneurs discover opportunities in China: An institutional view

This paper investigates how entrepreneurs in China accumulate and integrate information and knowledge to identify opportunities when facing weak infrastructure and changing institutional settings. By employing institutional theory and an interactive framework of entrepreneurship, this paper proposes a model that incorporates both individual and environmental effects. First the individual characteristics that lead to opportunity recognition are discussed: (1) human capital, (2) social capital, and (3) social skills. Next the model proposes that the relationships between individual characteristics and opportunity recognition are contingent upon: (1) the entrepreneurial environment in which opportunities are discovered, and (2) the personal turbulence experienced by entrepreneurs.     

Acquisitions,entry, and innovation in oligopolistic network industries

In industries with network effects, incumbents' installed bases create barriers to entry that discourage entrepreneurs from developing new innovations. Yet, entry is not the only commercialization route for entrepreneurs. We show that the option of selling to an incumbent increases the innovation incentives for entrepreneurs when the network effects are strong and incumbents compete to preemptively acquire innovations. Thus, we establish that network effects and installed bases do not necessarily restrict the innovation incentives and that network effects promote acquisitions over entry.     

Cooperation with competitors and product innovation: Moderating effects of technological capability and alliances with universities

The relationship between cooperation with competitors and product innovation performance was investigated along with the moderating effect of the innovating firm's technological capability and its alliances with universities. The hypothesis that cooperation with competitors has an inverted U-shaped relationship with product innovation performance was tested using data on new product introductions from 1499 Chinese firms. The results support the existence of a bell-shaped relationship between co-opetition and product innovation performance. Technological capability and alliances with universities were shown to weaken the relationship. The findings add significantly to the emerging literature on dynamic co-opetition.     

The effects of intergroup boundary permeability and hierarchy legitimacy on immigrant entrepreneurs' affective states,exchange strategies,and intentions toward suppliers

With globalization and immigration trends accelerating, today's entrepreneurial milieu is replete with culturally diverse, sometimes opposing, expectations and norms that affect industrial relationships vastly and deeply. Notwithstanding the large and multidisciplinary body of research on immigrant entrepreneurs, researchers have yet to explore how social structure influences the exchange relationships between immigrant entrepreneurs and suppliers. The present research employs relative deprivation theory to examine the influence of social structure on immigrant entrepreneurs' affective states, exchange strategies, and intentions toward suppliers. Results from a scenario-based experiment spotlight boundary permeability and hierarchy legitimacy as two key structural determinants of immigrant entrepreneurs' affective states (e.g., hope, stress, and anger), exchange strategies (i.e., status quo acceptance, upward mobility, opportunism, relationalism), and intentions toward suppliers (i.e., preference for ethnic suppliers, commitment to mainstream suppliers). The direct and indirect effects are delineated; and findings, along with their implications for research, practice, and policy are exposed.