The relationship of perceived risk to condom use: why results are inconsistent

This paper examined the factors associated with the inconsistent relationship between perceived risk and condom use among young adults. In a review of previously conducted case studies, 24 out of 25 studies found a positive relationship with self-efficacy. In this study, 709 teenagers from Sacramento, California, completed a self-administered baseline survey. The results revealed that 68% use condoms during sexual intercourse. An analysis of perceived risk showed that 25% belong to the high-perceived-risk respondents, while 75% belong to the low-perceived-risk respondents. Findings from the study indicated that the perceived risk for HIV transmission was a cause and effect of condom use and other precautionary behavior. In addition, the direction of the association between perceived risk and the behavior reverses depending on how a respondent interprets the perceived risk measure. Furthermore, in the development of indicators that measures the desired construct, open-ended question must be considered particularly during the pre-testing phase to find out how respondents were interpreting the perceived risk question.     

Impact of the level of aggregation on response accuracy in surveys of behavioral frequency

Through observations of AT&T data and the results of two of our own studies, we discovered interesting asymmetrical effects of the level of aggregation of the question on the response accuracy in surveys of behavioral frequency. We find that disaggregating a question to a lower, less comfortable level of aggregation creates greater uncertainty, leading to larger absolute errors in survey responses. However, if a question is asked at a higher less comfortable level, the majority of respondents escape by splitting questions down to the natural level, thereby avoiding greater uncertainty and thus responding more accurately. We argue that for greater accuracy in surveys, one should identify the natural level of aggregation at which a question should be posed. But when in doubt, it is better to ask a question at a higher level of aggregation because of possible escapability downward.     

Perceptions and preference for fresh seafood in an Australian context

Seafood as a whole food is highly nutritious. It is an important dietary source of protein, omega‐3 fatty acids and a wide array of highly bioavailable micronutrients. Despite the established health benefits associated with fish and seafood consumption, in Australia consumption levels still remain below those recommended for health. Although considerable research has been carried out on enablers and barriers to seafood consumption, the reasons Australian consumers do not consume recommended amounts of seafood while stating they would like to consume more seafood are complex and have not been fully illuminated. This paper reports on the development and results of a self‐administered questionnaire that aimed to identify consumer perceptions and preferences for fresh and frozen seafood. Data were collected through intercept surveys at an Australian university and 239 valid responses were received. Results confirmed respondent preference for fresh fish and seafood. There was significant confusion among respondents about what constitutes fresh seafood, with the term ‘fresh’ having different meanings to different respondents. Over half of respondents understood the term fresh to relate to seafood having been caught that same day. In comparison, approximately 15% understood fresh to reflect the accepted definition of having never been frozen. Additionally, results indicated respondents find it difficult to recognize if seafood is fresh, particularly in comparison with other meats. There is significant potential for the development of regulations for labelling of unpackaged seafood in order to allow consumers to make informed decisions about their purchases.     

Modeling Simultaneity in Survey Data

Responses to questions in a survey can reflect a behavior process that influences multiple response items. Respondent ratings of brand attributes, for example, can be affected by past purchases by making a brand more salient, or by respondents attributing higher performance to justify their purchases. When multiple response items are influenced by a common underlying process, there is simultaneity in the data. This paper proposes an approach to model the simultaneity in different survey responses by using common parameters and structural relationships motivated by behavioral theories on how consumers respond to surveys. Specifically, the proposed models show how brand usage and attribute perception responses are jointly determined by justification, order, and brand halo effects in two brand positioning studies. We detect a significant tendency for respondents to inflate their reported beliefs for particular brands as well as the selected brand across five countries in an international survey as well as in a domestic study. JEL Classification: C35, C53, D12, M31     

The Influence of Entrepreneurial Risk Assessment on Venture Launch or Growth Decisions

Entrepreneurs are thought to engage in riskier behavior than nonentrepreneurs, yet little empirical evidence supports that intuitively appealing notion. We argue instead that differences in information, not risk aversion, may explain the decision to launch or grow a venture. We separately test risk taking propensity and risk assessment. We hypothesize that entrepreneurs will not differ from nonentrepreneurs on risk taking propensity. Additionally, we propose and test a model of risk assessment. The sample size for this exploratory study is n=53 with 30 respondents declaring themselves as entrepreneurs and 23 declaring themselves as nonentrepreneurs. The study’s design is a simulation. Each respondent is provided with data on a potential acquisition that would result in either the launch of a new venture or significant growth for an existing firm. Consistent with the hypotheses, the results show no difference between entrepreneurs and nonentrepreneurs on the risk taking measure. We also find that we can predict entrepreneurial behavior based on risk assessment. We close with a discussion of limitations and directions for future research.     

A threshold model for respondent heterogeneity

Continuous models of respondent heterogeneity assume the existence of a response function where variables of interest are continuously related to explanatory variables. In many situations this assumption may not be true. In this paper we propose an approach of modeling respondent heterogeneity that identifies abrupt changes in the distribution of response coefficients around a threshold specification. Our model differs from traditional threshold models by introducing the threshold effect to describe across-unit behavior as opposed to within-unit behavior. We illustrate our proposed Bayesian threshold model for survey data from a large national retail bank that examines the effects of service wait times on customer satisfaction. We find evidence of a threshold effect where long in-process wait times are associated with bank branches characterized by weak associations between service quality drivers and overall perceptions of service quality. Branches with wait times below the threshold are found to have much stronger associations.     

Is what you choose what you want?—outlier detection in choice-based conjoint analysis

Choice-based conjoint (CBC) analysis has long been a popular technique in market research. Because CBC is dependent upon respondents’ stated preferences, respondent variability should be taken into account in part-worth estimation. In the spirit of Bayesian residuals within the probit framework, this paper proposes a novel respondent variability measure for CBC, called the “utility deviation” (UD), to detect outliers who have unusually high respondent variability. UD is constructed based on the standardized deviation between a respondent’s true and representative utilities on the made choices. We compare UD with the largest absolute realized deviation (LARD) statistic and the typically used metric, root likelihood (RLH), in the performance of outlier detection using simulated and empirical data. The results show that UD performs slightly better than LARD and significantly outperforms RLH. Finally, we show that performing outlier detection to exclude misleading data can significantly improve the quality of estimation and resultant applications.     

Winning ugly: Profit maximizing marketing strategies for ugly foods

Ugly foods meet nutritional and safety benchmarks but deviate from cosmetic and size standards. The marketability of ugly food is a major factor that frustrates field-level food rescue efforts. We investigate opportunities to promote ugly foods in a way that converts uniform negative preferences towards ugly food to more diverse and horizontally differentiated preferences where some consumers prefer ugly food to standard offerings and pay a premium. We conduct an online discrete choice experiment and find a portfolio of marketing strategies that significantly enhance respondent willingness to pay for ugly carrots. Dual messages that simultaneously (1) link the purchase of ugly food to reductions in food waste and (2) suggest ugly food is natural and authentic significantly improve willingness to pay. We also find respondents tolerate some level of mixing of ugly with standard carrots. We find the most profitable strategy is to form bunches that include 40% ugly and 60% standard carrots and to sell the bunches with green leaves attached at farmers markets where consumers receive dual marketing messages. Profit simulations confirm that, in the absence of such marketing strategies, farmers rationally create waste by discontinuing harvest when the percentage of remaining carrots that are ugly is high.     

PLease do not answer if you are reading this: respondent attention in online panels

This paper reports on the relevance of attention checks for online panels, e.g., M-Turk, SurveyMonkey, SmartSurvey, QualTrics. In two SmartSurvey studies approximately one third of the respondents failed a check that instructed them to skip the question. Attention-enhancing tools reduce this to approximately one fifth. The failure rate is not affected by replacing multiple-item scales with single-item measures. We find that failing the attention check relates to other attention indicators and that decreased attention levels often apply across the length of the survey. In support of relevance, our empirical findings show respondent inattentiveness systematically biases survey responses.     

Statistical Analysis of Choice Experiments and Surveys

Measures of households' past behavior, their expectations with respect to future events and contingencies, and their intentions with respect to future behavior are frequently collected using household surveys. These questions are conceptually difficult. Answering them requires elaborate cognitive and social processes, and often respondents report only their “best” guesses and/or estimates, using more or less sophisticated heuristics. A large body of literature in psychology and survey research shows that as a result, responses to such questions may be severely biased. In this paper, (1) we describe some of the problems that are typically encountered, (2) provide some empirical illustrations of these biases, and (3) develop a framework for conceptualizing survey response behavior and for integrating structural models of response behavior into the statistical analysis of the underlying economic behavior.     

Factors Impacting Ethical Behavior in Hospitals

This study examines factors impacting ethical behavior of 203 hospital employees in Midwestern and Northwestern United States. Ethical behavior of peers had the most significant impact on ethical behavior. Ethical behavior of successful managers, professional education in ethics and sex of the respondents also significantly impacted ethical behavior. Nurses were significantly more ethical than other employees. Race of the respondent did not impact ethical behavior. Overclaiming scales indicated that social desirability bias did not significantly impact the results of our study. Implications of this study for researchers and practitioners are discussed.     

Conducting Survey Research Through an Enhanced Online Web Survey Procedure

Abstract

Those companies or marketing personnel that need to survey or communicate with customers can save significantly on transaction costs (time, labor, etc.) by using an enhanced web survey procedure while maintaining the rigor of quality research. This study demonstrates the steps and software needed to conduct web-based surveys based on a recent survey conducted by the authors. The use of mail-merge type software to send a customized e-mail to potential respondents and the use of software to encode incoming responses into a database file without keyboard entry of responses is discussed. Various software, including HTML editing software, e-mail based merge software, CGI Scripts, and software to compile the survey results, are also described.     

Determinants of mail‐survey response: Survey design factors and respondent factors

With the use of a hierarchy‐of‐effects model, the decision to complete a mail survey was modeled as a process moving through several stages. A set of variables thought to influence the survey‐completion decision process was examined. These variables include survey design factors, which were manipulated by the researchers, and respondent factors, such as attitudinal and personal constructs. Based on the research findings, the hierarchy‐of‐effects model is an appropriate way to model the mail‐survey‐response process. The data indicate that among the survey design factors included in the study, the monetary incentive had the most effect on the decision process, with a pervasive impact throughout the process. Importantly, respondent factors such as attitude toward research were of critical importance in moving respondents through the survey‐response process. Research into the response‐rate phenomenon is likely to benefit by considering how both survey design and respondent factors affect specific stages of the response process and enhance participation in surveys. © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Who Buys Fair Trade and Why (or Why Not)? A Random Survey of Households

We conduct a random survey of Michigan (United States) households to gauge consumer behavior toward, and awareness of, fair trade. Around 58% of respondents have heard of fair trade and just over a quarter have knowingly purchased a fair‐trade product. Of the 38% of respondents who indicated a willingness to pay a premium for a fair trade product, the median premium they were willing to pay was around 20%. We find that those who are politically liberal, female, younger, and have attained higher levels of education are willing to pay higher premiums for fair trade, other factors held constant. Respondents who are unwilling to pay a fair trade premium are divided between not doing so because of a belief that all voluntary trade is already fair and a fear of potential unintended negative consequences on workers.     

The Relationship between Consumers' Unethical Behavior and Customer Loyalty in a Retail Environment

This paper investigates the relationship between two outcomes of relationship marketing – affective commitment and behavioral loyalty – and consumers' unethical behavior. The main objective of the study is to assess whether affective commitment and behavioral loyalty to a store translate into more ethical behavior towards that store, controlling for the variables of age, gender, and ethical beliefs. The study does not rely on a single measurement tool, but is based on ten months' panel data and three different mail surveys targeted at 359 Belgian households. The results provide support for our hypothesis that affective commitment is indeed negatively correlated with consumers' unethical behavior. The same conclusion could not be drawn for the relationship between behavioral loyalty and consumers' unethical behavior. No significant relationship was detected, not even in situations where affective commitment was high. The results hold major implications for retailing practice.     

Subjective probability assessments of the incidence of unethical behavior: the importance of scenario–respondent fit

Largely due to the difficulty of observing behavior, empirical business ethics research relies heavily on the scenario methodology. While not disputing the usefulness of the technique, this paper highlights the importance of a careful assessment of the fit between the context of the situation described in the scenario and the knowledge and experience of the respondents. Based on a study of online auctions, we provide evidence that even respondents who have direct knowledge of the situation portrayed in the scenario may develop significantly different assessments of the level of unethical behavior. Further, those assessments may be conditioned in different ways by the same moderating variables. We conclude that care should be exercised when recruiting respondents to choose only those who can be expected to understand the scenario in its true context and that separate analyses should be conducted for groups of respondents who have different perspectives within that context.     

Birds of a feather get lost together: new venture team composition and performance

This study explores the relationship between new venture team composition and new venture persistence and performance over time. We examine the team characteristics of a 5-year panel study of 202 new venture teams and new venture performance. Our study makes two contributions. First, we extend earlier research concerning homophily theories of the prevalence of homogeneous teams. Using structural event analysis we demonstrate that team members?? start-up experience is important in this context. Second, we attempt to reconcile conflicting evidence concerning the influence of team homogeneity on performance by considering the element of time. We hypothesize that higher team homogeneity is positively related to short term outcomes, but is less effective in the longer term. Our results confirm a difference over time. We find that more homogeneous teams are less likely to be higher performing in the long term. However, we find no relationship between team homogeneity and short-term performance outcomes.     

Using response behaviour theory to solicit survey participation in consumer research: An empirical study

Abstract

The purpose of this article is to report on research that examines survey participation rates (i.e. response rates) for personal interview surveys where solicitation for participation is based on different theories of survey-response behaviour in two culturally distinct countries. Field experiments were designed to investigate the extent to which the theories of exchange, cognitive dissonance, self-perception, and involvement/commitment can influence potential respondents to participate in a personal interview survey in Australia and Hong Kong. The results show that there were significant differences in Australia with the theory of self-perception having the strongest impact on survey-response behaviour, while cognitive dissonance has the least impact. In contrast, the effects in Hong Kong were not significant. This study adds to the limited empirical research regarding why consumers participate in surveys, particularly personal interview surveys. The theories are applied at the self-introduction and invitation to participate, which is a crucial stage in the potential respondent's decision about participation.     

Estimating Consumer Lock-In Effects from Firm-Level Data

This paper proposes a practical method for estimating consumer lock-in effects from firm-level data. The method compares the behavior of already contracted consumers to the behavior of new consumers, the latter serving as a counterfactual to the former. In panel regressions on firms’ incoming and quitting consumers, we look at the differential response to price changes and identify the lock-in effect from the difference between the two. We discuss the potential econometric issues and measurement problems and offer solutions to them. We illustrate our method by analyzing the market for personal loans in Hungary and find strong lock-in effects.     

An empirical analysis of individual level casino gambling behavior

Gambling and gaming is a very large industry in the United States with about one-third of all adults participating in it on a regular basis. Using novel and unique behavioral data from a panel of casino gamblers, this paper investigates three aspects of consumer behavior in this domain. The first is that consumers are addicted to gambling, the second that they act on “irrational” beliefs, and the third that they are influenced by marketing activity that attempts to influence their gambling behavior. We use the interrelated consumer decisions to play (gamble) and the amount bet in a casino setting to focus on addiction using the standard economic definition of addiction. We test for two irrational behaviors, the “gambler’s fallacy” and the “hot hand myth”—our research represents the first test for these behaviors using disaggregate data in a real (as opposed to a laboratory) setting. Finally, we look at the effect of marketing instruments on the both the decision to play and the amount bet. Using hierarchical Bayesian methods to pin down individual-level parameters, we find that about 8% of the consumers in our sample can be classified as addicted. We find support in our data for the gambler’s fallacy, but not for the hot hand myth. We find that marketing instruments positively affect gambling behavior, and that consumers who are more addicted are also affected by marketing to a greater extent. Specifically, the long-run marketing response is about twice as high for the more addicted consumers.