The application of learning theories to improve cross-cultural training programs in MNCs

Cultural intelligence and intercultural competence are concepts that have been identified as antecedents for success in global management, and both depend on the acquisition of cultural knowledge. However, although a lack of cultural knowledge is cited in the international management literature as a frequent source of failure in expatriate assignments, there is scant research about how cultural knowledge is created and diffused within organizations. We cite evidence that cross-cultural training programs, which are widely utilized for cross-cultural knowledge transfer, tend to be ineffective in transferring cultural knowledge, and we examine in detail how cultural knowledge is acquired in MNCs and reveal the importance of its tacit component. Then, drawing upon five relevant learning models, we propose a framework for the effective transfer of cultural knowledge. Based on this theoretical underpinning, we offer four sets of effective cross-cultural training methods, as a function of the resources available, that the firm can apply to achieve more effective cross-cultural training for global managers.     

Ethical development and human resources training: an integrative framework

This article draws on the training and business ethics literatures to craft a framework for creating and maintaining effective ethics training programs. We identify four themes in the recent training literature — trainee characteristics, training design, transfer of trained skills, and evaluation issues — and use these as the basis for creating a model of ethics training. As an illustrative example, we explore the research on individuals' cognitive moral development and examine how a framework built on sound training principles might enhance the efficacy of ethics training. Finally, we present a series of research questions that arise from this integration of ethics and training research.     

Context-dependent accountability strategies to improve the transfer of training: A proposed theoretical model and research propositions

The transfer of training continues to be a primary concern for organizations, yet important gaps in the literature remain. Thus, we extend recent work by Tews and Burke-Smalley (in press), which integrates accountability concepts from Schlenker (1997), along with Yelon and Ford's (1999) context-dependent transfer approach, to create a theoretical model and specific research propositions to help guide the field forward. We suggest that an accountability approach to training transfer, which simultaneously considers relevant work-context dimensions (e.g., skill type and supervision type) can be used to adopt appropriate accountability strategies that enhance trainees' transfer of learning back to their jobs. More specifically, by targeting variables that promote accountability – trainees' role clarity, ownership perceptions, and perceived control over their learning transfer – our work provides a useful theoretical model to guide scholars and practitioners in order to facilitate transfer in different workplace contexts. Implications for research and practice are also discussed.     

A practical but theory-based framework for selecting cross-cultural training methods

Increased internationalization in the economic, political, and social arenas has led to greater interpersonal cross-cultural contact. Because much of this contact has not been successful, cross-cultural training has been proposed by many scholars as a means of facilitating more effective interaction. However, most firms do not utilize cross-cultural training. The cross-cultural training framework proposed in this article is based on both theory and a review of the cross-cultural training literature. The contingency framework proposed provides a practical guide for determining the method and rigor of cross-cultural training most effective in various circumstances.     

Does it matter where to conduct training? Accounting for cultural factors

Training is an important function of human resource management. However, prior research about the relation between culture and training mostly focuses on a particular region, uses a few single case studies or examines only one or a few dimensions of culture at a time. We believe a more holistic and systematic approach is warranted. To address this need, we provide a theoretical framework which proposes that cultural factors affect training effectiveness via (1) contents and methods, (2) selection of trainers, and (3) learners' motivation, valence and learning style. In the context of cross-cultural training, we also reason that the congruence between parent and host culture influences training process and effectiveness. Implications for practice and future research are discussed.     

Employee perceptions and their influence on training effectiveness

Studies of the benefits of human resource development (HRD) for organisations have assumed a direct connection between training strategy and a hierarchy of performance outcomes: learning, behavioural change and performance improvement. The influence of workplace practices and employees' experiences on training effectiveness has received little attention. This study investigates evaluation strategies designed to elicit greater training effectiveness, and explores the influence of trainees' perceptions and work environment factors on this. Drawing on detailed case study findings, the authors highlight the importance of management practices, trainees' perceptions of the work environment and systems of reward in explaining behaviour change after training.     

Short-term cross-cultural study tours: impact on cultural intelligence

This paper examines whether short-term cross-cultural study tours enhance the four factors of cultural intelligence (CQ): metacognition, cognition, motivation and behavior. CQ has exhibited high correlations between higher levels of CQ and positive attitudinal and behavioral outcomes. As a capability, CQ appears malleable and, thus, open to change and improvement. Data were collected from working professionals in an MBA program both before and after participating in an experientially oriented 11- or 12-day short-term cross-cultural study tour. Results supported three of the four hypotheses, suggesting that short-term cross-cultural study tours exhibited a significant relationship with enhanced metacognitive CQ, cognitive CQ and motivational CQ. The results did not reveal a significant relationship between the study tours and behavioral CQ.     

American repatriate employees' retrospective assessments of the effects of cross-cultural training on their adaptation to international assignments

With 10 to 50 per cent of expatriates curtailing their assignments early, and the cost of foreign placement estimated at $500,000, training for expatriates needs to be improved. This study investigates different methods of training, and the results as perceived by repatriates. Repatriates were asked about the amount and type of cross-cultural training they had received and their effectiveness and productivity during the overseas assignment. Repatriates' responses included specific comments about their individual and familial experiences. It was hypothesized that managers who receive rigorous cross-cultural training before and during the assignment will not suffer intense culture shock and will become effective more rapidly than managers who have not had cross-cultural training. The results demonstrated that integrated cross-cultural training does reduce the time necessary to adjust and to achieve cultural proficiency and reduces the time necessary to become effective and productive in the assignment.     

Exploration-exploitation tradeoffs and information-knowledge gaps in self-regulated learning: Implications for learner-controlled training and development

Learning in modern organizations often involves managing a tradeoff between exploration (i.e., knowledge expansion) and exploitation (i.e., knowledge refinement). In this paper, we consider the implications of this tradeoff in the context of learner-controlled training and development. We then propose a model that integrates research on control theory, curiosity, and skill acquisition to explain how information knowledge gaps (i.e., gaps between what learners believe they know and what they desire to know) guide resource allocation decisions throughout the learning process. Using this model, we present testable propositions regarding (a) the different approaches learners take when resolving exploration-exploitation tradeoffs, (b) how systematic changes in learner perceptions translate into changes in systematic learner behavior, and (c) how common biases in key learner perceptions can undermine the functioning of self-regulated learning in training and development contexts. We finish with a discussion of the model's implications for the science and practice of training and development.     

中国企业跨国战略联盟中的组织学习研究

近年,中国企业与外国企业间组建了大量的跨国战略联盟,战略联盟为中国企业的全球学习营造了良好的组织支撑和学习界面。然而在现实中,由于存在着诸多障碍,制约了双方在联盟中组织学习的效果。因此,迫切需要理清障碍、加强学习管理,从而提升联盟中的组织学习效果,进而提高中国企业在国际市场的竞争优势。     

Workplace civility training: understanding drivers of motivation to learn

Abstract

Training is recommended as an important human resource management (HRM) practice to prevent mistreatment and enhance civility, but little is known about what influences the effectiveness of civility training. The central aim of this study was to address how workgroup conditions influence employees' attitudes about civility training and motivation to learn, which previous research shows is a predictor of training outcomes. Predictors were posited to include psychological and workgroup climate for civility, and personal and ambient mistreatment experiences. These predictors were hypothesized to drive positive (training discrepancy) and negative (training skepticism) pre‐training attitudes, which in turn were expected to influence motivation to learn. Results suggest the influence of climate for civility and mistreatment experiences on motivation to learn is largely indirect via pre‐training attitudes. Training skepticism and training discrepancy have conflicting influences on motivation to learn. Findings provide an empirical basis for HRM professionals to maximize employee motivation to learn in their own civility interventions.     

A dynamic model of training transfer

We expand our understanding of the training transfer process by developing the Dynamic Transfer Model (DTM). We develop and examine linkages between intentions to transfer, the initial attempts to utilize training, and the integration of feedback received from the transfer attempt. We propose that this process repeats itself over time in subsequent transfer attempts to impact work behavior and performance. Implications for transfer criteria, the dynamic interaction between the trainee and context, and the personalization of transfer are discussed. Based on the DTM, we suggest future research directions that can enrich our understanding of transfer as well as derive practical implications for improving training effectiveness.     

Exploring the effect of buyer engagement on green product innovation: Empirical evidence from manufacturers

In this study, we are interested in how export firms organize knowledge management and increase product innovation performance. Prior studies have concluded that knowledge transfer from external actors leads to operational performance outcomes; others have questioned the positive influence of buyer-driven knowledge transfer activities on innovation performance. Drawing on absorptive capacity, we aim to offer a better understanding, how export firms as recipients of knowledge resources, organize their internal capabilities in order to realize firm-level product innovation. This empirical study examines the interplay of buyer-driven knowledge activities, resource acquisition and combining, and product innovation outcomes in the context of Pakistani export firms. Drawing on survey data from 239 export-manufacturing firms, we test hypotheses using structural equation modeling. Our findings show that buyer-driven knowledge transfer activities play a crucial role in enhancing export firms in absorbing and combining resources that lead to product innovation. The pragmatic suggestion of the research suggests that managers look closely at developing a culture of involvement with their buyers that promotes the development of knowledge resources. The results of this study have research, policy, and managerial implications.     

Enhancing green product and process innovation: Towards an integrative framework of knowledge acquisition and environmental investment

Despite the increasing interest in green innovation literature, little is known on how and under what conditions firms' knowledge transfer activities affect green innovation. There is lack of research that on how particular organizational capabilities are seen more useful and how it influences on green innovation performance. To address this research gap, we examine a mediation model in which we explore whether a firm's knowledge acquisition capability and investment in environmental management mediate the impact of buyer-driven knowledge transfer activities on green product innovation and green process innovation. On the basis of an analysis of a sample of 239 manufacturing firms, we find that buyer-driven knowledge activities have a greater positive impact on green product innovation than green process innovation. Investment in environmental management fully mediates the relationship between buyer-driven knowledge transfer activities and green process innovation, and knowledge acquisition capability partially mediates the relationship between buyer-driven knowledge transfer activities and green product innovation. The current study provides evidence that internal competencies and the role of buyers in knowledge transfer are critical for explaining the green product innovation and green process innovation. Our results suggest that buyer involvement pushes firms to develop resource acquisition capability to enhance green product innovation. Our results also highlight the importance of investment in environmental management for overcoming the environmental challenges in the manufacturing firms.     

Social capital and human resource management in international joint ventures in Vietnam: a perspective from a transitional economy

This study highlights the importance of social capital in international joint ventures (IJVs), and examines human resource practices as a factor shaping such social capital. Comprehensive measures of social capital are developed and tested, which extend prior work on ‘bonding’ and ‘bridging’ social capital. We also link social capital with its anticipated antecedents and consequences. The study's findings are based on data collected from 164 IJVs located in Vietnam. IJV performance was predicted by training and by the level of trust and cooperation between foreign and local personnel. Training (including acquisition of management skills, technology, and cross-cultural understanding) also was predictive of the measures of social capital. A key practical implication arising from this study is that the return on investment from training of joint venture personnel can stem not only from the transfer of technical and management skills needed for developing competitive advantage, but also from the positive impact on social capital, which further contributes to venture success. The establishment of written objectives and plans for the venture, as well as the IJV's level of control regarding its own HR functions also was found to be related to some components of social capital. The findings of this study reinforce the call to build on the contributions of local personnel in joint ventures, and in Vietnam in particular.     

A theory of entrepreneurial learning from performance errors

This paper develops a theory of entrepreneurial learning from performance errors. The paper explains how entrepreneurs generate outcomes, and based on these, detect and correct errors in their own knowledge about the activities involved in creating and operating a new venture. The model developed in this paper reflects the major cognitive functions leading to outcome generation, error detection and error correction. We draw testable propositions about the effects of entrepreneurs’ domain-specific knowledge and cognitive ability on each stage of the learning process, which ultimately determine how much the entrepreneurs can learn from a given performance error.     

The theory of met expectations applied to expatriate adjustment: the role of crosscultural training

This study will test two hypotheses to determine whether the formation of expectations (prior to the global assignment) affects expatriates' adjustment. This study utilized a sample of seventy-three expatriates who completed questionnaires approximately ten months after arriving in their host countries. All the expatriates had predeparture cross-cultural training, but the training varied in perceived relevance. The expatriates were assigned either to countries where their native language was spoken (e.g. Americans in the UK) or to countries where their native language was not spoken (e.g. Americans in France). The results of the mediated regression analysis suggest that the more tailored and relevant the pre-departure cross-cultural training, the more expectations were either met or positively exceeded. Analyses suggest that both cross-cultural training and the language spoken in the host country affect the accuracy of expatriates' expectations prior to the assignment - and that having accurate expectations, in turn, positively affects cross-cultural adjustment. The results from this study encourage organizations to develop programmes that will ensure their expatriates have realistic expectations prior to their global assignments (e.g. through tailored cross-cultural training).     

Experiential cultural intelligence development: context and individual attributes

Cultural intelligence (CQ) represents advancement in the area of international human resources management and cross-cultural training. An experiential approach to CQ training is developed and analyzed. A diverse, multicultural group of over 370 participated. General self-efficacy and contextual aspects related to Contact Theory were found to be significant to training outcomes in CQ development. In crafting the most effective CQ training and education, organizations and international human resources staff can benefit from understanding individual and contextual influences. Our experiential approach to CQ education appears to hold promise and adds to the literature by producing a specific approach.     

Does it really work? Re-assessing the impact of pre-departure cross-cultural training on expatriate adjustment

Cultural adjustment is considered to be a prerequisite for expatriate success abroad. One way to enhance adjustment is to provide employees with knowledge and awareness of appropriate norms and behaviours of the host country through cross-cultural training (CCT). This article analyses the impact of pre-departure CCT on expatriate adjustment and focuses on variations in participation, length and the comprehensiveness of training. Unlike previous research, the study focuses on the effectiveness of pre-departure CCT for non-US employees expatriated to a broad range of host country settings. Employing data from 339 expatriates from 20 German Multinational Corporations (MNCs) the study finds CCT has little if any effect on general, interactional or work-setting expatriate adjustment. However, a significant impact of foreign language competence was found for all three dimensions of expatriate adjustment. We used interviews with 20 expatriates to supplement our discussion and provide further implications for practice.     

"ERP沙盘模拟训练"教学法之于传媒经营管理教育

"ERP沙盘模拟训练"教学法是一种模拟实战来培养经营管理人才的模式,在企业经营管理人才的训练中有很大用途。作者认为,传媒经营管理教育过程中也可以借鉴这种体验式的互动学习方法,并根据传媒产品的特性对该方法进行创新,即进行传媒经营管理教育的"沙盘模拟训练"。实施传媒经营管理教育的"沙盘模拟训练"可以让大学生去运作一个针对自己的社区性媒体。此外,作者还以创办一份大学生社区性报纸为例来说明传媒经营管理教育的"沙盘模拟训练"的具体方案。