碳税对江苏省宏观经济与碳减排的影响——基于CGE模型的模拟分析

征收碳税是发展低碳经济的有效手段。文章构建了经济、能源与二氧化碳排放9部门CGE模型,利用江苏省投入产出表编制了宏观和微观社会核算矩阵并开发了GAMS程序,模拟分析了碳税政策、不同碳税返还方式等情景对江苏宏观经济与碳排放的影响。结果表明:征收碳税将导致江苏实际GDP、社会福利下降,而名义GDP、居民收入、企业收入、政府收入上升;征收碳税将使得煤炭、石油和天然气等化石能源的消费量减少,而电力生产供应和消费增加;征收碳税明显降低了二氧化碳排放,排放强度随着碳税数额增加而下降;碳税抑制了高耗能行业发展,第三产业比重提高,产业结构优化;碳税返还给居民可以改善征收碳税的负面影响,弥补开征碳税造成的社会福利损失。     

中国的绿色政策与就业:存在双重红利吗?

减排与就业的"双重红利假说"认为:在征收碳税的同时减少所得税,能够实现减少碳排放与增加就业的双重红利。现实中,很多欧洲国家通过改变税收扭曲,成功地获得了"双重红利效应"。同样,中国也面临着开征碳税以及减少个人所得税的现实问题。那么,通过税收结构调整,中国能否创造出类似于欧洲国家的就业"双重红利"是一个非常值得探讨的问题。本文在VAR模型的基础上,模拟了中国的就业双重红利问题。最终发现:征收10元/吨的碳税对两部门的产出和就业影响并不显著;如果采取征收碳税并减少所得税的"中性"绿色税收政策将会促进中国低碳部门的产出增长;但至少到目前为止,与发达国家的经验事实不同,中国还难以在短期内获得就业的"双重红利"。然而,在节能减排和经济结构调整的双重压力下,改革税收体系以促进中国低碳经济的发展也不失为一种次优的选择。     

论我国开征碳税的理论基础

碳税属于环境税类,是对二氧化碳征收的一种税。碳税的开征要有理论作支撑,碳税开征的理论基础包括污染者付费理论、双重红利原则、环境的负外部性等。虽然目前对于是否开征碳税还有较大的争议,但当我们从理论上剖析碳税开征的经济学根源,我们会发现碳税对二氧化碳减排有重要意义。     

基于可计算一般均衡模型的中国碳税政策模拟

减少二氧化碳温室气体排放是各国都要面临的共同任务之一,征收碳税是积极应对气候变化和促进节能减排的有效政策工具。利用可计算一般均衡模型(CGE),探讨了实施碳税政策对中国各行业的温室气体排放及宏观经济影响。模拟结果显示,征收碳税是一种可行的政策选择,对温室气体的排放有明显的抑制作用。碳税的征收方法要本着公平公正的原则在全社会统一进行。碳税的税率不宜过高,当碳税征收在20元每吨标准煤时,二氧化碳排放减少了4.3%,GDP相对上升3.4%,适度地征收碳税可以促进经济总量的提升,在传统能源生产和消耗型产业适度降低生产规模的条件下换来了第三产业的高速发展。     

征收碳税的可行性分析

随着全球变暖,作为主要的温室气体二氧化碳,如何减少其排放变得尤为重要。许多经济学家提出,通过对生产中使用的传统化石燃料的含碳量来征收碳税,从而实现温室气体减排。事实上,有些国家已经率先实行征收碳税。本文就中国是否应该征收碳税进行了分析。     

征收碳税的可行性分析

随着全球变暖,作为主要的温室气体二氧化碳,如何减少其排放变得尤为重要.许多经济学家提出,通过对生产中使用的传统化石燃料的舍碳量来征收碳税,从而实现温室气体减排.事实上,有些国家已经率先实行征收碳税.本文就中国是否应该征收碳税进行了分析.     

碳税的国际经验与借鉴

为减轻碳税开征的改革阻力,根据国外碳税实施中的经验,我国开征碳税时,一要遵循渐进的原则,先开征低税率水平的碳税,再根据实际情况逐步提高税率;二要在开征碳税的同时,注意通过其他税种的改革为碳税留下税负空间,从而基本保持税收收入的中性:三要协调碳税与其他对化石能源征收的税种之间的关系,避免相关税种之间相互重复和冲突. 开征碳税以实现减少二氧化碳排放的目的,最初是20世纪90年代在一些北欧国家出现的.到目前为止已有10多个国家引入碳税,主要为奥地利、捷克、丹麦、爱沙尼亚、芬兰、德国、意大利、荷兰、挪威、瑞典、瑞士和英国等.此外,日本和新西兰等其他一些国家也在考虑征收碳税.课题组考察了部分发达国家开征碳税的背景、措施及效果,旨在探讨对我国有益的经验借鉴和启示.     

碳税的理论与实践初探

二氧化碳过度排放导致的全球气候变暖已经成为一个日益严峻的环境问题,而以二氧化碳排放为征收对象的碳税无疑是解决这一环境问题的重要措施。文章对碳税进行了全面阐述,介绍了碳税的内涵以及世界上征收碳税国家经验,在此基础上结合实际情况讨论了我国开征碳税的必要性以及存在的相关问题。     

碳税与碳排放交易

目前存在两种减排措施：碳税和碳排放交易。碳税是针对单位二氧化碳排放量征收税费;碳排放交易则是允许排放超额的企业向排放低于限额的企业购买排放额度。有学者表示,碳排放交易的实施目前缺乏一定的先决条件,比如需要有效的管理系统、成熟的法律体系、     

碳税的中国路径

考虑到近期出台资源税改革方案的可能性较大,一个阶段出台的税种不能过于密集,需要有一段时间来消化化石燃料价格上涨的影响.因此在资源税改革后有必要设置一定的过渡期,再开征碳税,课题组初步考虑将碳税的实施时间确定为资源税改革后的1～3年期间内,预计为2012～2013年. 研究碳税首先必须对碳税进行概念上的认定,还需理清碳税与能源税、环境税之间的关系. 简单而言,碳税就是针对二氧化碳排放征收的一种税.更具体地看,碳税是以减少二氧化碳排放为目的,对化石燃料(如煤炭、天然气、汽油和柴油等)按照其碳含量或碳排放量征收的一种税.而能源税一般是泛指对各种能源征收的所有税种的统称,包括国外征收的燃油税、燃料税、电力税以及我国征收的成品油消费税等各个税种.     

Effects of Carbon Dioxide Control Policy in China by Multi-Regional CGE Model

In recent years, China has faced tremendous pressure to reduce carbon dioxide emissions. At the COP 15 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen in 2009, China committed itself to achieve a 40%–45% per GDP carbon dioxide emission reduction in the near future. To reach this goal, China is willing to adopt a series of new policies, including attempts to introduce a carbon tax, and to start an energy-resource-tax pilot program in the western provinces. For this research, we constructed a Multi-Regional Computable General Equilibrium model. Then we used six scenarios to evaluate the economic effects and effectiveness of energy-resource tax policy for control of carbon dioxide emissions for different regions of China. The main result of this research is the finding that an ad valorem energy resource tax can reduce carbon dioxide emissions in China. At the same time, fiscal policy might engender different effects in different regions of China. Additionally, this policy is more efficient for controlling petroleum and natural gas resources than it is for coal resources.     

Optimal combination of innovation and environmental policies under technology licensing

Under what conditions will a carbon tax encourage environmental innovation? Can a regulator design an optimal environmental policy to reduce emissions and to promote clean technologies? This paper studies optimal environmental policy in the situation where a monopoly innovator develops and licenses clean production technologies to downstream polluting firms. We find that (i) a higher emission tax will encourage innovation when the burden of the tax payment in the polluters' costs and/or the price-elasticity of the demand for polluting goods are small, (ii) the innovation-inducing effects of emission tax are inversely related to the emission-reduction (Pigouvian) effects of the tax, and (iii) the social optimum can be achieved by the mix of tax and subsidy. We also show that if the policy instrument is limited to the tax, the second-best tax rate would lie between the marginal damage and the first-best rate. By performing numerical simulations, we also demonstrate that the optimal mix of the emission tax and R&D subsidy can have “double dividend” benefits.     

低碳经济视角下国外财税政策经验借鉴

发达国家促进低碳发展的财税政策实践表明,征收碳税有利于碳的减排并能够获得相应的财政收入,但是,征税的主要目的在于碳减排.对低碳产品的生产和消费提供财政补贴,具有显著的激励效果.对低碳技术的研发提供资助,不仅能够促进碳减排,而且能够促进低碳发展,实现双重盈利.我国实施促进低碳发展的财税政策需要考虑发展阶段、经济水平、经济形势等诸多因素.     

Double Dividend with Involuntary Unemployment: Efficiency and Intergenerational Equity

This paper analyzes the double dividend and distributional issues within an overlapping generations model framework with involuntary unemployment. We characterize the necessary conditions needed to obtain a double dividend, when the revenue of the environmental tax is recycled by a variation of the labor tax rate. We show that an employment dividend may occur without any efficiency dividend and that the young generation is not always harmed by the fiscal reform, even without any intergenerational transfers. Therefore, three dividends (environmental, efficiency and intergenerational equity) can occur simultaneously.     

碳税的产业竞争力效应分析

如何在减排的同时更好地促进我国经济发展,已成为一个亟须解决的问题。碳税是减少碳排放的一种重要手段。碳税开征与否的一个主要争论在于:征收碳税是否会影响产业竞争力。在制定碳税政策时,需要考虑碳税实施后对产业竞争力产生影响的可能性及程度,采取相应补偿措施,实现节能减排的目的。     

When does a carbon tax on fossil fuels stimulate biofuels?

A carbon tax is an efficient economic instrument to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide released from fossil fuel burning. If designed properly, it could also help significantly to promote renewable energy. Using a multi-sector, multi-country computable general equilibrium model this study investigates under what circumstances a carbon tax would help stimulate penetration of biofuels into the energy supply mix for road transportation in various countries and regions around the world. This study shows that a carbon tax cum biofuel subsidy policy, where a carbon tax is introduced to fossil fuels and part of the tax revenue is used to finance the biofuel subsidy, would significantly help stimulate market penetration of biofuels. On the other hand, a carbon tax alone policy, where the entire tax revenue is recycled to households through a lump-sum transfer, does not help stimulate biofuels significantly even at higher tax rates. Although the carbon tax cum subsidy policy would cause higher loss in economic output at the global level as compared to the carbon tax alone policy, the incremental loss is relatively small. The key policy insight drawn from the study is that if a carbon tax were to be implemented in an economy for the purpose of climate change mitigation, recycling part of its revenue to finance biofuel subsidies would significantly help stimulate biofuels.     

How should environmental policy respond to business cycles? Optimal policy under persistent productivity shocks

How should environmental policy respond to economic fluctuations caused by persistent productivity shocks? This paper answers that question using a dynamic stochastic general equilibrium real business cycle model that includes a pollution externality. I first estimate the relationship between the cyclical components of carbon dioxide emissions and US GDP and find it to be inelastic. Using this result to calibrate the model, I find that optimal policy allows carbon emissions to be procyclical: increasing during expansions and decreasing during recessions. However, optimal policy dampens the procyclicality of emissions compared to the unregulated case. A price effect from costlier abatement during booms outweighs an income effect of greater demand for clean air. I also model a decentralized economy, where government chooses an emissions tax or quantity restriction and firms and consumers respond. The optimal emissions tax rate and the optimal emissions quota are both procyclical: during recessions, the tax rate and the emissions quota both decrease.     

碳定价的政策工具选择争论:一个文献综述

二氧化碳等温室气体减排的政策工具选择问题是气候变化经济学中的一个重要研究领域。本文对该领域的最新研究进展作了全面的综述,试图梳理出在应对气候变化政策工具选择问题上各种不同主张的分歧所在,为中国碳减排的政策框架制定提供启示。通过对比分析关于传统的命令-控制工具和新型的基于市场的工具效率的几种不同观点,对处于政策工具选择争论核心的两种市场型工具——碳税和总量控制与交易制度在经济效率、政治可行性、执行成本、国际合作等方面各自的优劣性进行了重点评论,并讨论了更复杂的复合工具和双轨规制方法的特征。最后探讨了中国碳减排的政策工具选择问题,并指出了气候变化政策工具选择领域未来的研究重点。     

Dividend taxation and intertemporal tax arbitrage

We analyze the effects of changes in dividend tax policy using a life-cycle model of the firm, in which new firms first access equity markets, then grow internally, and finally pay dividends when they have reached steady state. We find that unanticipated permanent changes in tax rates have only small effects on aggregate investment, since macroeconomic dynamics are dominated by mature firms for which dividend taxation is not distortionary. Anticipated or temporary dividend tax changes, on the other hand, create incentives for firms to engage in inter-temporal tax arbitrage so as to reduce investors' tax burden. For example, a temporary tax cut – the type most likely to be enacted by policymakers – induces firms to accelerate dividend payments while tax rates are low, which reduces their cash holdings and makes them capital-constrained when large investment opportunities arise. This can significantly lower aggregate investment for periods after the tax cut.