ARE FINANCIAL AND SOCIAL EFFICIENCY MUTUALLY EXCLUSIVE? A CASE STUDY OF VIETNAMESE MICROFINANCE INSTITUTIONS

A major debate in microfinance focuses on the existence of a trade‐off between the financial sustainability of microfinance institutions (MFIs) and their outreach to poor clients. This paper adds to this debate by analyzing whether financial and social efficiency are mutually exclusive in a context of implicit subsidies by the state and international donors. We use data from a sample of 28 Vietnamese MFIs and apply Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) to identify the existence of a trade‐off. Our analysis shows that for Vietnamese MFIs financial and social efficiency are not related. We interpret this as evidence for the fact that there is no support to believe that there is such a trade‐off. Subsidies, based on which most Vietnamese MFIs currently operate, helps them to show high financial efficiency, while at the same time being able to attain their social goals. Nevertheless, this model may not be sustainable in the long‐term.     

An Econometric Analysis of I(2) Variables

This paper provides a selective survey of the recent literature dealing with I(2) variables in economic time series, that is, processes that require to be differenced twice in order to become stationary. With reference to particular economic models intuition is provided of why I(2)-and polynomial cointegration are features likely to occur in economics. The properties of I(2) series are discussed and I review topics such as: Testing for double unit roots, representations of I(2) cointegrated systems, and hypothesis testing in single equations as well as in systems of equations. Different data sets are used to illustrate the various econometric and statistical techniques.     

Estimating the LQAC model with I(2) variables

This paper derives a method for estimating and testing the Linear Quadratic Adjustment Cost (LQAC) model when the target variable and some of the forcing variables follow I(2) processes. Based on a forward-looking error-correction formulation of the model it is shown how to obtain strongly consistent estimates of the structural parameters from both a linear and a non-linear cointegrating regression where first-differences of the I(2) variables are included as regressors (multicointegration). Further, based on the estimated parameter values, it is shown how to test and evaluate the LQAC model using a VAR approach. A simple easy interpretable metric for measuring the model fit is suggested. In an empirical application using UK money demand data, the non-linear multicointegrating regression delivers an economically plausible estimate of the adjustment cost parameter. However, the restrictions implied by the exact LQAC model under rational expectations are strongly rejected and the metric for model fit indicates a substantial noise component in the model. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A dyadic approach to the impact of differences in organizational culture on relationship performance

The authors extend previous research on relationship management by investigating the potential effect of differences in organizational culture on relationship performance among 124 dyads. Theory suggests that partner similarity may improve the feeling of we-ness thereby contributing to the perceived success of inter-firm cooperation. The findings reveal that differences in organizational culture are larger in less successful inter-firm relationships, but do not influence the perceived relationship success significantly. Our results suggest that relationship managers should not confuse compatibility with similarity; personal chemistry is important for relationship atmosphere but does not solely depend on similarities. Future research in this area may wish to concentrate on a more complete measure of organizational (sub)culture(s), the different levels of analysis (personal, organizational, dyad), relationship life cycles (stage models) and the role of organizational identity.     

Plunging into the sea, again? A study of serial entrepreneurship in China

While it stands to reason that serial entrepreneurs—individuals who have founded more than one new venture—should achieve higher levels of success than novices, to date researchers have found little support for this proposition. Is this rather perplexing result only limited to the developed countries in which most research has been conducted? Or is it indicative of a general phenomenon, and hence requesting the need for new theory? We explore these questions by testing the existing theory in two geographic regions in a rapidly emerging transition economy—China. Data from 440 Chinese entrepreneurial ventures suggest that experienced entrepreneurs are better at developing networks, and at managing organizations than novices, but like their counterparts in developed countries, do not necessarily achieve higher levels of venture performance. Implications for theory, as well as for entrepreneurship in the context of transition economies are addressed.     

Does microfinance affect income inequality?

This study addresses the question whether participation of the poor in microfinance contributes to reducing a country’s level of income inequality. Using data from 70 developing countries, we show that higher levels of microfinance participation are indeed associated with a reduction of the income gap between rich and poor people. We also show, however, that the effects of microfinance on reducing income inequality are relatively small. The results of this study add to the discussion on the impact of microfinance on poverty by showing that, although access to microfinance does seem to improve the relative income position of the poor, this improvement is modest, which is probably because the use of microfinance is generally small as compared to the size of the economy of the countries in our sample. Microfinance should, therefore, not be seen as a panacea for bringing down income inequality in a significant way.     

The determinants of trade credit use: the case of the Tanzanian rice market

Most small businesses in the developing economies suffer from a lack of access to formal external finance. One important alternative source of finance for these entrepreneurs is trade credit. Applying a unique data-set containing data on specific trade relations between rice wholesalers and rice retailers in Tanzania, we analyse the determinants of trade credit demand and supply in this market, using a simultaneous equation modelling approach. The analysis shows that while the demand for trade credit is primarily determined by the extent to which retailers need external funds, supply is mainly driven by wholesalers’ incentives to attract and keep clients. Moreover, wholesalers’ willingness to provide credit increases if they have better information about the possibility that the customer will fail to repay the credit.     

The Importance of the Indirect Transfer Mechanism for Consumer Willingness to Pay for Fair Trade Products—Evidence from a Natural Field Experiment

A natural field experiment is conducted on the determinants of consumer’s willingness to pay for “fair trade” (FT) products. In four treatments, subjects are offered different choices in connection with a coffee purchase, such as buying regular coffee or FT coffee at a premium, regular coffee with or without a premium, or donating directly or not donating. Depending on the treatment, the premium or direct donations are either given to FT or a well-known charity. A large part of the willingness to pay a premium for FT coffee over regular coffee is shown to be not related to the specific attributes of FT coffee but rather caused by the indirect transfer mechanism that FT uses, i.e., selling products at a premium which goes to the cause of FT.     

Designing a global standardized methodology for measuring social entrepreneurship activity: the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor social entrepreneurship study

Although there is a high level of practitioner, policymaker, and scholar interest in social entrepreneurship, most research is based on case studies and success stories of successful social entrepreneurs in a single country. We develop a methodology to measure population-based social entrepreneurship activity (SEA) prevalence rates and test it in 49 countries. Our results provide insights into institutional and individual drivers of SEA. Using the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) methodology of Total Entrepreneurial Activity (TEA), we find that countries with higher rates of traditional entrepreneurial activity also tend to have higher rates of social entrepreneurial activity. We develop a broad definition of social entrepreneurship and then explore types based on social mission, revenue model, and innovativeness.