Knowledge Types in Technology

Starting with the distinction of natural science, engineering science ("technology") and engineering practice ("technics"), the paper will stress the difference between technological and technical knowledge. The first part will discuss the relationship between science and technology, arguing that technology is a genuine type of knowledge rather than "applied science". In technics, however, even technological laws, as transformations of scientific laws, cover a certain part of knowledge only. The greater part of technical knowledge includes technical know-how, functional rules, structural rules, and socio-technological understanding, which is just developing in our times. The classification of knowledge types will be used for determining which kind of knowledge may seem appropriate to general technological education.     

Developing Technological Knowledge

It is argued in this paper that various approaches are available in designing teaching and learning experiences for technology education. However, many approaches are based on inappropriate assumptions about transfer, the ways in which meaning is represented by individuals and relationships among different kinds of experiences. It is advanced that the development of technology knowledge in school should aim at developing a rich inter-connectedness among the ways in which technological meanings can be understood by learners, so that learners experience transformations in relation to themselves, technological practice and their knowledge. Cultural-historical activity theory is suggested as a useful basis for designing instruction aimed at the various purposes of technology education.     

The Influences of Teacher Knowledge and Authentic Formative Assessment on Student Learning in Technology Education

Students involved in holistic technological practice need to develop an understanding of technological practice outside the classroom and to participate in tasks set as close as practicable to actual technological practice. This paper investigates the context of assessment and its relationship to achievement and the importance of teacher knowledge to student technological practice. I argue that ‘out of context’ assessment tasks do not give an accurate indication of achievement levels of the children assessed. Introduced is the Model of Student Technological Practice, which identifies four constraints that influence student technological practice. A significant factor is teacher knowledge, as it impacts greatly on the quality of feedback given to students by their teachers. Timely teacher intervention and formative assessment feedback will alter student technological practice and should improve the students’ likelihood of developing successful outcomes.     

Knowledge and Values in Technology Education

This paper addresses two closely interrelated issues in Technology Education: knowledge and values. The starting point for the discussion is analysis of the nature of knowledge in technology education. Approaches for theorising knowledge will be analysed in this paper as well as problems associated with them. Three major types of problems are identified: problems with finding an appropriate approach for the analysis of technological knowledge; problems with a technocratic interpretation of technological knowledge for the purpose of its classification; and problems with establishing a consistent approach to distinguish common features of technological knowledge. A model that represents knowledge in technology education and the place of values in it is presented as a way of overcoming the problems specified. The claim is made that understanding of knowledge/values relationships can improve theoretical understanding of how technology education can be constructed.     

The Value of a Utilitarian Curriculum: The Case of Technological Education

The position taken in this paper is that narrow conceptions of human development and the purposes of schooling have tended to displace rather than situate subjects like technology in the curriculum. Arguments which support this position, however, are only possible when the paradigm through which schooling is operationalized, is inverted. Viewing classic school subjects as abstractions which perpetuate narrow conceptions of pedagogy is a contentious position to take. But taking it and understanding how a utilitarian curriculum spawns real human development and learning gives a whole new perspective to curriculum theory and practice.     

协同技术创新中的技术互补、资源互补与技术创新能力研究

本文基于柯布--道格拉斯生产函数,结合微观经济学的相关理论,分析了协同技术创新对高技术企业与传统企业生产过程的提升作用。同时,通过实证研究和回归分析,结果表明,高技术企业和传统企业之间的技术互补和资源互补对高技术企业和传统企业的技术创新能力都有着积极显著的影响。     

Learning Technological Concepts and Developing Intellectual Skills

The increasing complexity of work and social life demands that people possess conceptual understanding and intellectual skills in order to gain the desired level of competence. Unfortunately, the development of high level cognitive skills is a complex task that has not been sufficiently addressed in education. This chapter discusses the nature of intellectual skills and identifies numerous problems that educators face when they attempt to emphasize these skills in their curriculum. Through a comparison of the characteristics of formal and informal learning environments, the author identifies four elements of informal learning that guide the creation of high level intellectual skills. Incorporating the four elements of informal learning in formal instruction can lead to robust opportunities for students to gain conceptual understanding and develop their intellectual skills.     

A Synergy Between the Technological Process and a Methodology for Web Design: Implications for Technological Problem Solving and Design

Traditional instructional methodology in the Information System Design (ISD) environment lacks explicit strategies for promoting the cognitive skills of prospective system designers. This contributes to the fragmented knowledge and low motivational and creative involvement of learners in system design tasks. In addition, present ISD methodologies, including web design methodologies, do not focus sufficiently on technological problem solving and design. Engagement in system design tasks demands critical thinking [Shelly, Cashman & Rosenblatt, 2001, Systems Analysis and Design, 4th edn. Course Technology, Boston] and abstraction skills [Harris, 1999, Systems Analysis and Design for the Small Enterprise, The Dryden Press, Harcourt Brace College Publishers, Fort Worth]. The aim of this paper is to explain a synergy between the technological process and web design methodology and its influence on the development of the cognitive skills of learners in the ISD context. In this research, the Team Structure Software Process (TSSP) methodology was integrated with the stages of the technological process. An interface approach between Information Systems and Technology Education was adopted during the implementation of an Instructional Web Design Program (IWDP), which served as a framework for building a software product. This research was based on a qualitative, action-research approach where individual interviews, focus group interviews, observation and document sources were used to gather data. Seventeen students at an institution of higher education were observed and their experiences were investigated through a focus group interview, journals and an essay. In addition, an interview with the teacher was conducted to investigate her thoughts and feelings during the implementation of the IWDP. During the implementation of the IWDP, multi-method learning was promoted, enlarging learners' insight into the design process and a climate for enhancing intellectual processes and skills created [Jakovljevic, 2002, An Instructional Model for Teaching Complex Thinking through Web Page Design, DEd thesis, Rand Afrikaan University, Johannesburg] This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

The relationship between technology and science: Some historical and philosophical reflections. Part I

This essay offers a detailed review of the literature on the relationship between technology and science. It is in two parts. Part I begins by describing science and technology, and the differences between them. It then discusses the commonly-held technology-as-applied-science (TAS) view; the origins of this view, the support for it, and the strong historical and philosophical challenges to it, beginning more than half a century ago, are explored. The development of the steam engine is then offered as a brief case study to illustrate that science-technology relations are more complex than implied by the TAS view. Part I concludes with a consideration of ontological arguments supporting the reverse view, namely that technology is often a necessary precursor to science.Part II, to be published in a following issue, explores some of the consequences of the TAS view. One consequence is that it has generated a story-line in which scientific ideas are emphasised and other factors necessary for technological innovation have been down-played. Another consequence is that, even in cases where technology does apply scientific knowledge, the process of application is often considered obvious; the difficulties of translating ideas into artefacts may not be appreciated. The essay argues for the telling of a more complex story of science-technology relations, one which recognises their historical independence in the past, and their mutual, two-way interaction in many modern fields of endeavour. It concludes with a consideration of some economic and educational implications.     

中国工业的技术创新

随着工业化的不断深化,技术创新的关键性作用日益突出。由于中国是一个发展中国家,产业转移是推动我国产业发展的强大动力。所以迄今为止,我国大多数产业的技术来源主要都是西方国家的产业技术扩散。但是,中国不能长期处于低端产业、低附加值的国际分工地位。要形成持续的竞争力和保持持续增长的空间,就必须在技术创新上有新的作为,即把产业发展的基点放在技术创新,特别是发展具有自主知识产权以至拥有核心技术的基础之上。丰富的劳动力资源是我国产业发展的一大优势,但对技术进步而言则是一个影响比较复杂的因素。中国产业技术的选择不能不反映劳动力丰富这一重要的资源禀赋条件,又不能使巨大的劳动力就业压力成为抑制中国产业技术进步的消极因素,影响中国产业顺应世界产业技术发展的基本线路,实现向高层次、高技术价值链的推进和升级。这是中国产业技术创新过程中的一个具有重大战略意义的问题。在传统计划经济体制下,推动我国产业技术进步的主体是政府。改革开放以来,企业在技术创新和技术进步过程中的作用逐步增强。这不仅表现为自20世纪90年代中期以来,我国的R&D支出持续增长,而且表现为企业逐步成为技术创新的主体。中国工业以至中国经济未来的发展前途将越来越依赖于技术创新,以技术创新推动工业     

Issues of Learning and Knowledge in Technology Education

This article examines issues that arise from learning and knowledge in technology education. The issues examined are, first, the definition of technological knowledge and what the nature of that knowledge should be, where the concern is with how we define and think about that knowledge, especially in the context of how students learn and use knowledge in technology education. Second, the relationship between learning and knowledge in particular the inter-relationship between learning and knowledge, focusing on a situated view of learning. The third issue sees learning related to the context within which the learning takes place.This paper will explore these three inter-related issues in four sections. First, an outline of a view of learning that privileges context. Second, there will be a consideration of types of knowledge, namely, procedural and conceptual knowledge. These two types will be elaborated upon through research done at the Open University, particularly on problem solving and design. In discussing conceptual knowledge empirical work in mathematics and science education will be drawn on, along with work on the use of mathematics and science in technology education. Third, it will be argued that qualitative knowledge should become a part of teaching and learning in technology education because it both reflects a view of knowledge stemming from situated learning, and the tasks of technology. The article will end with a research agenda for what we have yet to understand, drawing on the earlier arguments.     

知识溢出效应与企业集聚定位决策

知识溢出在强化企业间知识流动和创新能力的同时，也增加了知识损失的风险．其正负效应的发挥左右着企业特别是高新技术企业的集聚定位决策。借助Klaus的模型．在分析知识溢出影响因素的基础上，发现技术接近性与空间局限性一起促进了企业间知识溢出效果：分析了知识溢出正负效应对企业集聚定位决策的影响，从知识溢出联合创新效应、知识溢出时滞和企业成本敏感性三方面考察对企业集聚定位决策的影响，并针对我国高新技术产业园区发展提出了相应的对策建议。     

基于生态视角对我国建筑业技术创新的思考

文章提出了基于生态视角来进行建筑业技术创新的概念，分析了基于生态视角的建筑业技术创新对我国建筑业发展的重要性和必要性。从规划设计、施工到建筑物拆除以及创新管理与组织等方面分析了技术创新的内容，并对基于生态观的我国建筑业技术创新提出了建议。     

技术领先战略与技术创新价值

本文以企业研发投入并未形成足够的利润现象为背景,分析企业研发投入动力与技术领先战略,并用创新竞赛模型、技术的理性对抗、企业内技术外溢、技术保护和技术实力显示来解释这一现象。由此得出结论:企业追求创新的长期利益在本质上也是创新竞赛,但未必会导致过度的研发投入.企业追求创新的长期动机可以让企业更加主动地参与创新;政府推进创新的短期政策很容易造成创新竞赛。而长期政策则可以让企业有效率地参与研发.     

Developing Technological Stance: Children's Learning in Technology Education

Following a review of current research in children's learning in technology education, and an examination of the kinds of knowledge demanded in contemporary technology education programs in elementary schools, I argue that what is needed in early technology education programs is the scaffolding of what I am calling technological stance. This construct acknowledges the socio-cultural character of technology as a human endeavor. In contrast to programs which are oriented to application of conceptual and procedural knowledge or to programs in which knowledge is generated through interpretation of interactions with materials and tools, programs which support technological stance position learners as critical inquirers into both tool-related and discursive practices of technology.     

技术水平与技术利润贡献的实证研究

技术的发展是一个从稀缺到一般的过程,在这个过程中技术对利润的贡献是递减的。这样就产生了两个问题:不同生产性质的行业处于不同的技术发展阶段,其生产者对技术投资有不同的偏好;在同一生产性质的行业内部,不同技术水平的生产者对技术投资也有不同的偏好。反之,如果技术投资偏好是可以测量的,那么就可以根据不同行业的技术投资数据来实证该行业的技术发展阶段及其技术水平。本文对这两个偏好建立模型,并根据我国1996—2006年间18个代表行业的技术投资数据进行经验研究,分析这些行业的技术投资偏好和其所处的技术水平阶段,为我们制定产业政策提供理论依据。     

The Nature of Technology for Design

This paper reviews ideas from design and technology and science education and discusses knowledge, values and skills as aspects of technology in order to demonstrate that technology for design cannot be simply associated with a knowledge component of technology. The paper highlights the linguistic challenges in expressing issues in this area and the philosophical difficulty that the nature of cognitive modelling means that some aspects may be impossible to express using language. Values and a designerly way of knowing and the nature of technological skills are discussed in order to establish their relationship to technology for design. Prior studies concerning technology and designing have focused on engineering and science-based design areas. A research agenda in relation to the proposed broader interpretation of technology for design is discussed, which demonstrates that such research must ultimately be interdisciplinary. Nevertheless, initial steps which could be taken by design researchers are suggested.     

有偏技术进步、技术路径与就业增长

基于1990～2012年我国技术进步的就业效应以及技术进步的要素偏向性估算,本文从有偏技术进步的角度来解释这一时期技术进步对就业影响。对不同技术进步路径与就业关系的分析表明,即使技术进步偏向于资本使用（或者劳动节约）,导致对就业产生负效应,但如果选择有助于就业增长的技术进步路径,还是可以实现技术进步与就业增长之间的和谐发展。最后本文提出若干政策建议。     

The Directions for Technological Change: Alternative Economic Majorities and Opportunity Costs

Governments redirect R & D resources. Thegovernment supports R & D in technologies and in partsof the country that the private sector is unlikely tosupport, and the government provides funds forinexperienced businesses and for minority-ownedbusinesses when the private sector will not. Becausethe distribution of income and wealth is so unequal,our conventional methods of evaluating the socialusefulness of the redirection of the resources may notwork well. Redirection of R & D resources to meetSchumpeterian and Jeffersonian objectives may actuallybe efficient despite generating less economic surplusgiven the current distribution of income and wealth.     

城市集聚经济微观机制及其超越:从劳动分工到知识分工

本文在区分集聚机制与集聚效应、劳动分工与知识分工、成本外部性与技术外部性的基础上,使用统一的分析框架解释了城市集聚经济的发生机制,特别是将知识创造、知识溢出和知识积累结合起来,分析了知识分工与技术外部性促进城市集聚经济的发生机制。知识分工通过协作机制、结构匹配机制和循环累积机制促进知识的创造和积累,交流外部性条件下技术外部性的创新集聚效应和动态累积效应实现了知识在更大空间范围内的低成本使用,二者共同促进了城市收益递增。