陕南移民搬迁后续精准扶贫路径选择研究

［目的］贫困户对精准扶贫路径高质量选择和实施是走好精准扶贫“最后一公里”的重要内容，是确保到2020年陕南移民搬迁工程顺利竣工、我国农村人口全面脱贫的关键因素，更是移民农户实现长效发展致富的充分保证。［方法］文章基于对陕南6个移民安置点的248户搬迁农民的实地调研数据，运用压力—状态—响应（PSR）模型和层次分析法（AHP）构建陕南移民搬迁后续精准扶贫路径选择评价体系并进行实证分析。［结果］陕南移民搬迁后续精准扶贫路径选择仅处于中等水平。精准识贫机制压力因素、精准扶贫行为主体响应因素严重制约着移民贫困户精准扶贫路径选择； 移民户自我发展内生动力不足直接决定着精准扶贫路径实施效果。［结论］应全面系统地从强化移民户自主脱贫意识、细化精准扶贫的幅度和层次、优化产业扶贫结构、提升精准扶贫要素耦合度等方面进行精准扶贫路径设计和选择，才能整合精准扶贫资源、提高精准扶贫绩效、提升陕南移民贫困户自我发展能力。     

精准扶贫政策对农户贫困脆弱性的影响研究——来自准自然实验的经验证据

目的 科学评估精准扶贫政策对农户贫困脆弱性的影响具有重要意义。方法 文章基于中国家庭追踪调查（CFPS）的4期追踪数据,运用VEP法测算了我国农户的贫困脆弱性,然后运用双重差分法研究了精准扶贫政策对农户贫困脆弱性的影响效果及中介效应机制。结果 （1）近年来我国农户的贫困脆弱性显著降低,中西部地区农户的贫困脆弱性比东部地区高;（2）精准扶贫政策显著降低了农户贫困脆弱性,政策效应明显,而且随着时间的推移,政策效果愈发显著;（3）实证估计结果通过了连续型DID法与PSM-DID法的稳健性检验;（4）异质性分析表明,精准扶贫政策对农户脆弱性的作用在中西部地区比在东部地区更为显著,对贫困户脆弱性的影响大于对非贫困户脆弱性的影响;（5）中介效应机制分析表明,精准扶贫政策可以通过提高农户社会资本的方式降低其贫困脆弱性。结论 在贫困状况较为严重的地区,应保持帮扶政策持续稳定,降低农户的贫困脆弱性。在识别贫困户和制定扶贫政策时,需关注未来可能陷入贫困的农户,提升其应对外界风险冲击的能力,同时应注重发挥各种社会组织与非正式制度的作用,形成多方面减贫合力。     

Impact of risk aversion on fertiliser use: evidence from Vietnam

This study utilises a large nationally representative household survey of unusual scope and richness from Indonesia to analyse how the receipt of educational transfers, scholarships and related assistance programmes affects the labour supply of children and the marginal spending behaviour of households on children's educational goods. We found strong evidence of educational cash transfers and related assistance programmes significantly decreasing the time spent by children in income-generating activities in Indonesia. Households receiving educational transfers, scholarships and assistance were also found to spend more at the margin on voluntary educational goods. These results were stronger for children living in poor families. Our results are particularly relevant for understanding the role of cash transfers and educational assistance in middle-income countries where enrolment rates are already at satisfactory levels, but the challenge is to keep the students in school at post-primary levels.     

Importing High Food Prices by Exporting: Rice Prices in Lao PDR

Lao PDR has extensive export controls on its staple food, glutinous rice, which keep domestic prices low relative to international prices. Using price, harvest, and export data this paper analyses how glutinous rice prices in Laos PDR are related to those in its trading partners, Thailand and Vietnam. We find that rice prices in Lao PDR are more likely to rise following a good harvest year than a bad or a normal year. This is consistent with export controls being relaxed after good harvests, leading to an increase in exports early in the season and rising prices later as stocks are depleted. There is thus a case for removal of trade restrictions since they give rise to price spikes while keeping the long‐term price of glutinous rice low, and thereby hinder increases in income from agriculture. However, since high rice prices are likely to affect the poor negatively in the short to medium term, a combination of an export tax and cash transfers is recommended during the transition period. Although this is a case study of Lao PDR, the findings may equally apply to other developing countries that export their staple food.     

Living on the edge: vulnerability to poverty and public transfers in Mexico

Social policy in Mexico has focused on identifying and supporting households in extreme poverty. Yet, the country has a significant number of households just above the poverty line who are not eligible, by definition, for antipoverty programmes and are at risk of falling into poverty in the event of adverse shocks without appropriate social safety nets. This study uses cross-section and longitudinal data to understand better the profile of those ‘vulnerable’ households, their risk exposure, and the extent to which they are covered by public transfers and insurance mechanisms. The analysis shows that until 2010 most social programmes, including the few with productive components, barely covered the vulnerable. The study calls for public policies to pay attention to the vulnerable and find a policy mix on the continuum between targeted interventions and universal insurance schemes to serve this income group.     

Effects of treatment beyond the treated: a general equilibrium impact evaluation of Lesotho's cash grants program

Africa's social cash transfer programs target the most resource‐constrained households, unlikely to expand supply in response to transfer‐induced demand. We propose a local economy‐wide impact evaluation model and use it to evaluate local spillovers from Lesotho's Child Grants Program. We report Monte‐Carlo confidence bounds around impact‐simulation results. We find significant spillovers to nonrecipient households and significant real income multipliers, although the latter are dampened if factor supply constraints generate excessive inflationary pressures. Our findings raise questions about how to measure the impacts of cash transfers. Evaluations focusing only on eligible households are likely to significantly understate program impacts.     

秦巴山区不同类型贫困户易地搬迁意愿及影响因素研究基于重庆418户农户调查

目的 通过对重庆秦巴山区贫困农户的调研,分析秦巴山区不同类型贫困农户的易地扶贫搬迁意愿及影响因素,找出影响贫困农户搬迁的关键因子,为助推脱贫攻坚提供科学决策依据。方法 文章运用二元Logistic回归模型,选取23个指标构建影响因素评价指标体系,并运用主成分分析法提取13个主要因子,分析主要因子对不同类型贫困农户的易地搬迁意愿影响因素。结果 贫困农户搬迁意愿较强,但不同类型贫困户的搬迁意愿具有明显差异,低保兜底型贫困户>非农型贫困户>兼业型贫困户>务农型贫困户;在影响因素方面,家庭人口数量、医疗教育负担、住房结构、搬迁政策认知情况是影响贫困农户搬迁意愿的共同因素;人均耕地面积、家庭年人均纯收入、耕作半径、耕地是否流转是务农型贫困户的差异性因素,年龄、非农劳动力比重、距离村干道距离是非农型贫困户的差异性因素,家庭年人均纯收入、耕地是否流转以及住房结构是兼业型贫困户的差异性因素,人均耕地面积、人均住房面积和搬迁方式满意情况是低保兜底型贫困户的差异性因素。结论 不同类型贫困农户易地搬迁意愿及影响因素具有显著差异,政府应该在充分尊重农户意愿的基础上推进易地扶贫搬迁工作,并构建一套长效稳定增收机制。     

可持续生计视角下易地搬迁精准扶贫效果评价

易地搬迁是我国实施精准扶贫政策的重要手段之一。以湖北省十堰市龙韵村115户搬迁农户为研究对象,对其搬迁前后的生计资本、生计策略以及生计结果分别进行对比,分析政策实施对搬迁农户生计的改善情况,并通过移民农户对扶贫搬迁政策的满意度评价扶贫效果。结果表明:(1)易地扶贫搬迁促进了移民生计资本的增加,改变了农户生计策略,优化了贫困户整体生计结果,精准扶贫效果显著;(2)农户对易地搬迁扶贫政策效果的整体满意度较高,均值为3.71,提升了贫困户的获得感及幸福感;(3)易地搬迁可持续减贫仍存在一定的制约因素,需要防范返贫风险。     

Livestock and land share contracts in a Hindu society

This article examines factors related to a livestock rental market in western Nepal and assesses whether this market is associated with caste differentiation and land rental market participation. Theoretical models for asset‐rich (i.e., high‐caste) households, rich in land and livestock, and asset‐poor (i.e., low‐caste families) households are presented to provide logical explanations for the existence of a livestock rental market and the synergy between livestock and land rental markets participation. A combination of double hurdle models and bivariate‐ordered probit models were used to test the implications of the models. Consistent with the theoretical models, land‐ and livestock‐rich high‐caste households were more likely to rent out land and/or livestock, whereas land‐ and livestock‐poor and credit constrained low‐caste households were more likely to rent livestock and land from others. Participation in the two markets was positively correlated, indicating a synergistic relationship that may be due to production and transaction costs reducing benefits. Policies that can enhance the allocative efficiency of livestock and land rental markets can improve equity as well as efficiency of land use in Nepal. Provision of livestock credit to land‐poor low‐caste households is also crucially dependent on their access to more long‐term contracts for land.     

How do informal farmland rental markets affect smallholders’ well‐being? Evidence from a matched tenant–landlord survey in Malawi

We estimate the efficiency and equity returns to farmland rental markets in Malawi using a matched tenant–landlord survey of smallholder farm households in four districts. Our sample allows us to more fully observe the landlord side of the rental market, which is almost always missing in previous studies. Our results suggest that land rental markets promote efficiency by facilitating a net transfer of land to more productive farmers. We also find that land rental markets promote equity as conventionally defined in the land markets literature, that is, by transferring land from land‐rich households to land‐poor households, and from labor‐poor to labor‐rich households. However, our study identifies some important challenges for land rental markets in this context. First, we find that tenants in our sample are wealthier than their landlord counterpart on average in all dimensions other than landholding. In addition, most landlords report the motive for renting out their land as either the need for immediate cash, or the lack of labor and/or capital to cultivate the plot that was rented out. These findings align with concerns about potential “stress renting” by poor landlords and suggest the value of defining equity along a broader set of dimensions other than simply equalizing the distribution of farmland and labor.     

Migrant remittances,agriculture investment and cropping patterns

We investigate how the receipt and amount of domestic or international transfers influences household decisions regarding farm investment and the selection of capital and labour-intensive crops. We argue that, even though recipient households may use additional income to increase agricultural investment, investment can fall in the short run if labour constraints arising from the migrant member's absence are binding and capital accumulation is suboptimal. Employing a set of endogenous treatment estimates, we test this hypothesis on data from 5636 rural households in Pakistan. Our findings show a substantial difference between recipient and non-recipient households in terms of their economic behaviour. Recipient households make 100% less agricultural investment and generate 82% less production compared to non-recipient households. The estimates are found to be robust when tested with alternate empirical techniques (Heckman Selection and matching). The impact is stronger in the case of households that receive domestic transfers, with 100% less farm investment and 77% less production than non-recipient households. Remittances result in a decrease in production of both capital- and labour-intensive crops, reflecting a decline in overall farm activity. Similar farm investment and cropping patterns are observed relative to the amount of remittances received. The results are robust to different model specifications and estimation procedures.     

Rising Food Prices and Household Welfare: Evidence from Brazil in 2008

Food price inflation in Brazil in the 12 months to June 2008 was 18%, whereas overall inflation was 7%. Using spatially disaggregated monthly data on consumer prices and two different household surveys, we estimate the welfare consequences of these food price increases, and their distribution across households. Because Brazil is a large food producer, with a predominantly wage‐earning agricultural labour force, our estimates include general equilibrium effects on market and transfer incomes, as well as the standard estimates of changes in consumer surplus. Although the expenditure (or consumer surplus) effects were large, negative and markedly regressive everywhere, estimates of the market‐income effect were positive and progressive, particularly in rural areas. Because of this effect on the rural poor, and of the partial protection afforded by increases in two large social assistance benefits, the overall impact of higher food prices in Brazil was U‐shaped, with middle‐income groups suffering larger proportional losses than the very poor. Nevertheless, as Brazil is 80% urban, higher food prices still led to a greater incidence and depth of poverty at the national level.     

Class differentiation,deagrarianization, and repeasantization following the coffee crisis in Agua Buena,Costa Rica

This research evaluated trajectories of agrarian change following liberalization and deregulation of the coffee commodity chain, assessing the transformation of agrarian class structures and livelihoods between 2000 and 2009 among landed coffee farmers from Agua Buena, Costa Rica. Simultaneous processes of differentiation, deagrarianization, and repeasantization are documented. Deagrarianization is identified as the result of either adaptive or maladaptive processes of livelihood diversification out of agriculture. Repeasantization is characterized by the widespread adoption of low external‐input agriculture driven by cultural norms of self‐sufficiency and labour flexibility within farm households. In order to ensure equitability and the continued viability of rural households in communities ravaged by commodity deregulation, aid and training need to be targeted towards resource‐poor households in two principal areas: first, to transition off‐farm livelihoods into stable and high return activities and, second, to provide the agroecological knowledge and resources for farming households to self‐provision and distantiate themselves from the market.     

Poverty targeting, resource degradation and heterogeneous endowments—a micro-simulation analysis of a less-favored Ethiopian village

Persistent and widespread poverty in less-favored areas (LFAs) is attributed to fragile natural resources and poor markets. Limited assets may keep households outside the reach of poverty policies targeted at LFAs. We explored in a stylized manner the role of heterogeneous household assets for (1) policies aimed at poverty reduction; (2) within-village income inequality; and (3) soil erosion. With a farm-household micro-simulation model we analyzed for each household in a remote Ethiopian village three sets of policies: technology improvement, infrastructure investment, and off-farm employment through migration or cash for work (CFW) programs. Combating poverty with a single policy, migratory off-farm employment reduces the poverty headcount most. Because of self-selection, CFW programs performed best in terms of reaching the poorest of the poor. CFW also reduced within-village income inequality most, while a price band reduction increased income inequality. Only technology improvements resulted in a trade-off between poverty and soil erosion. Price band and off-farm employment policies reduced erosion while outperforming technology improvements in terms of poverty reduction. We found that combining two policies was most helpful in assisting poorer households to overcome the limitations of their asset endowments. A CFW program combined with reduced price bands yielded most in terms of poverty reduction and income inequality. This policy complementarity is, however, less important for better-endowed households. Reducing the reliance of households on agriculture offered a win-win situation of reducing poverty and maintaining natural resources. Combining policies helped to overcome asset limitations, to target policies to the poorest households and to reduce income inequalities.     

Efficiency–equity tradeoffs and the scope for resource reallocation in agricultural research: evidence from Nigeria

On the basis of projected economic and poverty impacts of alternative commodity research programs, this article assessed efficiency and equity tradeoffs and the scope for research resource reallocation in Nigeria. Given the importance of major food staples to both poor and nonpoor households in production and consumption, introducing a poverty dimension revealed no significant shift in priorities compared with those implied by efficiency. The results showed that neither the additional benefits to the poor nor the foregone benefits to society are significant from prioritizing research according to equity—relative to efficiency—criteria. As current priorities are supported by neither efficiency nor equity criteria, however, there is considerable scope for maximizing research benefits to the poor through informed reallocation of research resources. The article concludes with a discussion of the patterns of resource reallocations implied by efficiency and equity criteria.     

Subsistence and semi‐subsistence farming in selected EU new member states

Factor analysis and cluster analysis are used to analyze the attitudes and perceptions of agricultural households toward farming, commercialization, and barriers to and drivers for increased integration in agricultural markets. Data come from farms in five EU New Member States. The contribution of unsold output to total household income is valued. Stepwise linear regression is employed to detect variables useful in explaining the degree of agricultural market integration of farm households. The analysis indicates that subsistence farming is of utmost importance for the rural poor, particularly in Bulgaria and Romania. The proportion of consumption from own production, manual cultivation techniques, and distance to an urban center are negatively correlated with output sales. Rural development policies targeted at rural physical and market infrastructure might relieve some of these constraints.     

Malaria incidence and agricultural efficiency in Uganda

The cost of accessing healthcare can be a major determinant of disease prevalence, which in turn has short‐ and long‐term welfare implications on poor households. In response, governments in developing countries often resort to subsidizing the cost of drugs, which, while perhaps easier to administer, may not always be the most effective way of addressing healthcare cost. In this regard, we analyze the impact of different types of household level health expenses on disease incidence and agricultural production efficiency. We use data from the 2006 Uganda National Household Survey, which covered approximately 7,400 households. The results suggest that a 10% increase in consultation, medicine, and hospitalization expenses would reduce malaria incidence respectively by 35.6%, 20.5%, and 21.3 %, which translates into a 1.1%, 0.6%, and 0.6 % decrease in agricultural inefficiency, respectively. The results indicate that helping poor households meet expenses for consultation through subsidies or eliminating consultation fees has a larger impact on malaria incidence and agricultural productivity among poor rural households than subsidizing the cost of medical drugs, the most common avenue chosen by developing country governments in the fight against the disease.     

农民合作社是有效的益贫组织吗?

本文从农民合作社的组织特性出发,分析了贫困户加入合作社改善其经济状况、提高其生活满意度的机理,然后利用2017年"精准扶贫精准脱贫百村调查"的3216户贫困户数据,使用可处理内生性的扩展回归模型,估计了贫困户加入合作社对其收入和生活满意度的影响。研究结果发现:加入合作社可以让贫困户年家庭人均纯收入增加872元,且对实际贫困户的增收效应更大;加入合作社可以显著提高贫困户的生活满意度,且对实际贫困户的提升作用更强;社会交往是加入合作社影响贫困户生活满意度的中介变量,可以解释加入合作社对贫困户生活满意度影响的17.37%。因此,政策制定应更加重视农民合作社的多维益贫性。     

Groups,Networks and Hierarchy in Household Private Transfers: Evidence from Fiji

While economists have studied private transfers exchanged among households within a network extensively, those exchanged directly with groups to which the household belongs—such as ritual gifts, communal work and church donations—in developing countries have received very limited attention. Using original household survey data gathered in rural Fiji, this paper demonstrates that: the group-based transfers are much greater than the network-based transfers, probably because of significant household contributions to groups for the provision of local public goods; and group-based transfers influence network-based transfers through the social hierarchy. A comparison of various groups (e.g. kin and church groups) and social ranks (e.g. those determined by gender, disability, kin elite and religious elite) indicates that network-based transfers adjust to hierarchy bias in group-based transfers, depending on the physical and social connections of groups and networks.