非正规性视角下城市非正规住房形成的新认识——基于新制度主义的解释

基于非正规性研究领域,引入新制度主义解释框架,回答国家作为行动者是如何影响非正规住房形成的.以北京老城传统居住地区——平房四合院内非正规住房的形成与发展为对象,通过住房数据分析、访谈与参与观察对该框架进行实证检验.结果 表明:为了实现特定历史时期集体利益的最大化,国家进行了土地和住房产权改革,在此过程中附带产生了非正规住房.在国家的默许和单位制影响住房供给的路径依赖的双重作用下,非正规住房规模不断扩大.结论 为我国城市传统居住地区非正规住房的形成贡献了新的理论解释,未来希望检验该框架在解释城中村非正规住房形成中的适用性.     

国内外非正规住房发展的比较研究

非正规住房是发展中国家在快速城市化进程中普遍存在的城市现象,本文通过综述非正规住房内涵特征、研究进展,梳理国内以城中村为典型的非正规住房发展的四阶段特征、国外以自助型居住区为典型的非正规住房的特征及改造模式,揭示出国内外非正规住房发展在合法性、住区档次、住房供应体系作用等方面的共性,以及在成因、居住主体、建设管理主体等方面的差异。在此基础上,归纳总结国外非正规住房发展及改造对我国的借鉴,包括对非正规住房价值认识以及改造中对外来人口关注等方面。     

城中村改造:政府、城市与村民利益的统一--以广州市文冲城中村为例

城中村是我国快速城市化背景下、城市向乡村蔓延过程中出现的普遍地理现象和城乡矛盾激化的一个缩影.城中村改造的过程是城市政府、城市发展要求和原村民三方利益主体对土地收益和城市功能的博弈过程,城中村的改造也只有在保证三方的利益得到合理保障的情况下才能顺利进行.以"广州市文冲城中村改造方案"为基础,探讨城中村改造的规划方案中如何体现政府管理、城市发展要求和原村民三方利益的共赢,提出一条切实可行的城中村改造思路.     

“城中村”改造中主要利益主体及其关系分析

二元土地制度造成了土地收益的双向性,从而导致了“城中村”改造过程中政府和村民两个改造主体间的利益矛盾关系,而协调好两者的利益关系,减小村民带来的改造阻力是“城中村”改造的难点所在。通过对“城中村”改造中的两个主体及其利益关系之间的博弈分析得出,只有解决好政府和村民间的矛盾利益关系,才能使“城中村”改造顺利进行。     

社会组织参与住房保障的模式创新与制度保障——英国住房协会的运作经验与借鉴

以住房协会为代表的社会组织是英国保障性住房供给与管理的主要平台,在英国住房保障体系中扮演着重要的角色。对住房协会的企业化治理架构、政府外部监督机制进行了深入剖析,认为这种模式能够在保证实现住房保障政策目标的基础上提升住房配置效率,开辟了传统的"市场"和"政府"之外的第三条住房供给道路,对于完善我国住房制度供给侧改革,引导社会力量参与我国保障性住房发展有借鉴启发意义。     

保障性住房供给中民间资本引导——以天津市为例

民间资本具有逐利性,民间资本参与保障性住房供给必然要追逐利益,相应的制度设计必须尊重民间资本的逐利性,给予民间资本稳定、持续的利益激励,从而保证其稳定、持续地参与保障性住房供给。但基于民间资本的流动性,需要在制度设计中中断民间资本的逐利性,避免民间资本参与保障性住房过程中为追逐利益而偏离住房保障目标。对于具有较高获益性的保障性住房,天津市允许民间资本直接参与供给;而在获益性较低的保障性住房项目中,天津市采用保障性住房投资基金、保障性住房信托投资基金、住房公积金贷款等工具鼓励民间资本参与保障性住房供给,有效地兼顾了民间资本的逐利性和保障性住房的公益性,在结果上达到了双赢。     

保障性住房供给中民间资本引导--以天津市为例

民间资本具有逐利性，民间资本参与保障性住房供给必然要追逐利益，相应的制度设计必须尊重民间资本的逐利性，给予民间资本稳定、持续的利益激励，从而保证其稳定、持续地参与保障性住房供给。但基于民间资本的流动性，需要在制度设计中中断民间资本的逐利性，避免民间资本参与保障性住房过程中为追逐利益而偏离住房保障目标。对于具有较高获益性的保障性住房，天津市允许民间资本直接参与供给；而在获益性较低的保障性住房项目中，天津市采用保障性住房投资基金、保障性住房信托投资基金、住房公积金贷款等工具鼓励民间资本参与保障性住房供给，有效地兼顾了民间资本的逐利性和保障性住房的公益性，在结果上达到了双赢。     

城中村对周边商品住房租金的影响及空间效应

利用特征价格模型、空间特征价格模型和地理加权回归等方法，研究城中村和以城中村私宅为代表的非正规住房租赁市场对正规市场租金的影响及空间效应。研究发现，商品住房周边存在城中村会显著降低其租金水平，商品住房的租金水平与其离城中村的距离和城中村私宅租金水平成正比。城中村对于周边商品住房租金的影响存在显著的空间溢出效应和空间异质性。结合实证结果，建议规范房屋租赁市场，将私宅妥善纳入监管，并将城中村私宅经整治改造后作为保障性住房的重要来源。     

城中村改造中的政府角色扮演:安排者、监管者和协调者

城中村改造是地方政府实现彻底城市化,改变城乡二元结构的首要目标。以往的政府为主体的城中村改造模式遭到了越来越多的抵制,激化了社会矛盾,不利于和谐社会的构建。政府在城中村改造中应改变传统的主导角色,定位为公共服务的安排者、公共政策的供给者、改造过程的监管者、利益关系的协调者,为城中村改造的顺利推进提供服务。     

非营利组织建设与住房供给

对当今中国房地产市场而言,解决住房供给主体单一化问题远比对住房产品的供给形式进行规制更重要.住房供给主体单一化所造成的供给垄断是造成当前住房价格快速上涨的重要原因之一,非营利组织参与住房供给过程能够在一定程度上增加住房供给渠道的多元化并减弱开发商的市场力量,从而能够更好地满足人们的住房需求.     

城市规划对住房可支付性的影响

以场景分析法剖析城市规划与住房可支付性之间的关系,认为城市规划对住房可支付性具有双重影响:其限制作用可能导致住房价格上涨,其再分配作用则可对可支付住房进行补贴。提出通过城市规划提升住房可支付性的两条途径:直接途径为通过增加住房供给来达到提升可支付性的目的;间接途径为通过抽取规划得益来补贴住房,以提升住房的可支付性。在房价与需求双高的条件下,住房市场持续存在经济租金,因此抽取规划得益具有很强的可操作性,有可能成为解决中国住房可支付性问题的现实途径。     

Making the ‘Invisible’ Visible: Redevelopment‐induced Displacement of Migrants in Shenzhen,China

Gentrification in China is intertwined with urban redevelopment, which causes the large‐scale displacement of rural–urban migrants from ‘villages in the city’ (ViCs). Because of the informality of ViCs, migrant renters have very insecure tenancy and during redevelopment they are treated as a negligible (‘invisible’) social group. As they are very difficult to locate after displacement, they are also literally invisible to researchers. To make the invisible visible, this study traced a sample of displaced migrants from Huangbeiling village in Shenzhen. The focus was on the displacement process and on identifying the consequences for the displaced. We found various forms of displacement during the redevelopment process. Nearby ViCs were prioritized by displaced migrants to minimize as much utility loss as possible. However, they generally suffer from decreased proximity, increased living costs, and the loss of social networks and job opportunities. Remarkably, some choose to return to the gentrifying village, enduring displacement in situ caused by increasing rents, drastic physical neighbourhood changes and declining liveability, in exchange for retaining their original social and economic networks. Large‐scale urban redevelopment is causing the rapid shrinkage of informal housing. Recognizing and addressing the housing needs of this impoverished social group is a matter of urgency.     

Placing the Urban Village: A Spatial Perspective on the Development Process of Urban Villages in Contemporary China

The rapid urbanization of China since the mid‐1980s has led to the development of a new spatial category, the urban village (chengzhongcun). The dominant neoliberal urban development regime approaches urban villages as a social, spatial, economic and political problem, and as targets for aggressive redevelopment and eradication policies. In this article, I propose a spatial perspective that makes use of several theoretical ‘anchors' to analyze the influence of urban village spatiality on its development process and to explore alternatives to the dominant redevelopment model. I begin by examining the spatial conceptualization of the urban village as a non‐place, arguing that this spatial reading undergirds the redevelopment‐by‐demolition model and tends to obscure alternative conceptualizations. I then move on to propose three alternative readings of urban village space, examining it as an everyday space, a liminal space and a neighborhood. Combining these three readings with the ‘non‐place' conceptualization provides a nuanced understanding of urban villages' unique spatial attributes and social roles, by evoking spatial and social processes that take place in most urban villages across China. Taken together, these spatial readings challenge the social and spatial rigidity of dominant representations of urban villages and supply a much‐needed spatially based conceptual framework that can be used to develop new urban planning models.     

The Nomad,The Squatter and the State: Roma Racialization and Spatial Politics in Italy

What happens when Roma people move from the space of an informal settlement to that of a squat of a housing rights movement? In this article, which is based on the analysis of housing squats involving Roma people in the Italian capital city of Rome, I argue that this move is more than a housing solution: it is a new form of contentious and aesthetic politics. In Rome approximately 7,000 Roma face extreme housing deprivation and segregation, in both official and makeshift camps. While different associations have for many years advocated Roma housing inclusion through a minority and human‐rights framework, in the aftermath of the 2007/2008 economic crisis an increasing number of Roma have moved to squats set up by social movement activists. The aim of the article is threefold. First, it illustrates the collective action repertoire of Roma‐squatting. Secondly, it considers its aesthetic politics, which through spatial dislocation unsettles the racializing discourse endorsed by policymakers that underpins the segregation of the Roma. Finally, this article unpacks the process of politicization of Roma‐squatting and discusses the urban frames and material resources that consolidate this transformation through a comparison of four housing squats that Roma people joined.     

Formalization by the State,Re‐Informalization by the People: A Gecekondu Transformation Housing Estate as Site of Multiple Discrepancies

This article demonstrates residents' transformative practices and discusses attendant outcomes to contribute to an understanding of state‐built housing estates for people affected by urban transformation projects. It draws upon ethnographic fieldwork conducted in a social housing estate (K‐TOKI) in the Northern Ankara Entrance Urban Transformation Project (NAEUTP). It addresses questions on why formalization of informal housing takes place today, under what conditions it is countered by re‐informalization practices, and what the outcomes of this process are. As informal housing became formalized by NAEUTP, gecekondu dwellers were forced into formalized spaces and lives within K‐TOKI, which was based on a middle‐class lifestyle in its design and its legally required central management. Informality re‐emerged in K‐TOKI when the state's housing institution, in response to the estate's poor marketability, moved out, allowing residents to reappropriate spaces to meet their needs and form their own management system. When cultural norms that are inscribed in the built environment and financial norms that treat residents as clients conflict with everyday practices and financial capabilities, the urban poor increasingly engage in acts of informality. I argue that the outcome of this informality in a formal context is a site of multiple discrepancies.     

Displacing Informality: Rights and Legitimacy in Belo Horizonte,Brazil

This article compares two cases of displacement suffered by informal workers and informal residents in the Brazilian city of Belo Horizonte, both connected to the hosting of the 2014 FIFA World Cup. It asks the following question: considering that the right to work and the right to housing are both enshrined in the Brazilian Constitution, why do claims upon space based on those constitutional rights have different degrees of legitimacy? Two cases are analysed in detail. The first one concerns a group of informal workers displaced from their workspace for the modernization of the local stadium. The second one tells the story of an informal settlement where 90 families were displaced due to the construction of a flyover designed to improve access to the football stadium. This article engages with current postcolonial debates around urban informality, tackling two points that have been absent from these discussions. First, it compares two ways of informally occupying urban space—for work and for housing—revealing the distinct degrees of legitimacy embedded in such practices due to pre‐existing institutional arrangements. Second, it emphasizes the connection between work and home through the life strategies and place‐making practices of the urban poor.     

Informal Property Rights as Relational and Functional: Unravelling the Relational Contract in China's Informal Housing Market

In the face of state-led land grabs, enterprising Chinese peasants have started a revolution in the ambiguous and insecure rural tenure system by developing an extralegal property system known as the small property right (SPR). Using the SPR, peasants are able to capitalize on their property through the sale of houses built on collectively owned land. Little is known, however, about the specific process behind the development of the SPR by the peasants, or how this extralegal property system functions in terms of securing the use and transfer of property without the backing of law. This article aims to clarify the situation through the lenses of the Endogenous Nature of Institutions and Relational Contract Theory, aiming to understand the socially constructed, endogenous and relational nature of the property rights that make SPR functional. Based on an ethnographic investigation of Beijing's largest SPR housing settlement, we show how enterprising peasants develop long-term relational contracts with urban households for the provision of housing services, secured on the basis of the common interests and symbiosis of the two parties and a reputation system that serves to deter defaults. The discretionary treatment of SPR housing by local states serves as a further motivation for the village and the informal homeowners to preserve a stable property arrangement, with such a specific institutional setting being an exemplar of China's pragmatic state entrepreneurialism.     

The Dark Side of Urban Informality in the Global North: Housing Illegality and Organized Crime in Northern Italy

This article deals with housing illegality/informality in Italy, where it represents an established aspect of urban development. It presents a case study focused on Desio, a town close to Milan in northern Italy. Here housing illegality occurs by virtue of the well‐established presence of a mafia‐type criminal organization (the ‘Ndrangheta). Three examples of illegal construction in Desio are analysed, forming the basis for a discussion on the distinctive features of illegal house‐building in Italy. In particular, institutional incentives encouraging illegal housing are investigated, with reference to both formal institutions (e.g. planning laws, rules preventing unauthorized housing and building amnesties) and informal institutions (e.g. organized crime). The case of illegal housing in Italy contributes significantly to the wider international debate on urban informality, highlighting the critical need for research along avenues as yet only partially explored (e.g. informal housing in Western countries and the role of criminal activities and actors in the spread of informality) and challenging some common assumptions such as the geographical dualism (‘global North’ versus ‘global South’) which, implicitly, results from the international literature.     

Urban Renewal in Istanbul: Reconfigured Spaces,Robotic Lives

The article discusses Turkey's property‐led residential redevelopment model. This entails the demolition of an existing settlement, replacing it with blocks of apartments (usually constructed on the exact same site and at a higher density), some of which are then made available to displaced residents for purchase via mortgage loans with long maturities. While the authorities promote this model of urban renewal as an innovative public housing policy, I argue that, far from being an exception to market‐rate housing, the model is in fact a market‐disciplinary tool. It seeks to incorporate into the formal market not just spontaneously developed and only partially regulated spaces, but also the conduct of residents living in these informal neighborhoods. The article contributes to the immense literature on urban renewal and organized struggles around the right to housing by showing that urban renewal is not simply about dispossession and displacement. In the Turkish case, urban renewal does not necessarily seek to displace poor residents (even though it often ends up doing so), rather to incorporate them into a nascent mortgage origination market. The second half of the article introduces and elaborates on a case study in Istanbul.     

LAND MARKETS AND THE EFFECT OF REGULATION ON FORMAL-SECTOR DEVELOPMENT IN URBAN INDONESIA

Until recently, urban land and housing markets in Indonesia seemed to function well. Informal-sector development provided low-income housing affordably. Through government programs, formal-sector developers could build housing for all but the poor. Since 1989, however, daily conversation pictures land speculation as rampant and formal-sector housing as rising beyond the means of the middle class. Newspapers carry stories of conflicts between small landowners and large developers with government officials in between. This article investigates this situation by addressing two related questions: are urban land prices rising “too fast?”; how do land regulations and development practices affect costs, and who pays these costs? The article includes quantitative estimates of urban land prices, changes in urban land supply, movement of land through the permitting process, and the effect of development regulations on costs. Data come from a literature survey and interviews of some of the largest formal-sector developers in Indonesia. A principal finding concerns a development regulation called a “location permit” and the “social function” of land in Indonesian law. Although helpful as a means of assembling land in Indonesia's highly fragmented land markets, location permits allow formal-sector developers to hold land off the market and pay low prices to small landowners. Ultimately, the “social function” of land under Indonesian law holds down the price formal-sector developers pay for land, but not at the price at which they sell their product. The article concludes by proposing reforms to the regulatory process.