Consistency or Heroics: Skewness,Performance, and Earnings on the PGA TOUR

The structure of the payments in professional golf tournaments is heavily weighted to reward the top performers more handily. On the PGA TOUR, for example, the winner typically receives 18% of the purse, second place receives 10.8%, and so on down to 0.2% for 70th place. This payment structure brings up the possibility that the PGA TOUR is disproportionately rewarding one-time, exceptional performances rather than consistent steady play. To examine the extent of this effect, this paper correlates the 2002 earnings of the top 100 PGA TOUR professional golfers with their average performances, the variance around the averages, and the skewness of the individual distributions of their scores. Mean performance, variance, and skewness are all significantly related to earnings per tournament in the theoretically predicted directions. The research makes connections to and has implications for several topics in the sports economics literature including competitive balance and the hot-hand phenomenon. Additionally, it uncovers a heretofore unappreciated consequence concerning the relationships among the distributions of effort, performance, and remuneration in the tournaments compensation model.

Freedom of Entry,Market Size,and Competitive Outcome: Evidence from English Soccer

A primary prediction of the theory of sports leagues is that teams with higher revenues will have higher league positions or winning percentages than teams with smaller revenues. Behind this prediction lies the key influence of market size, yet this has been underexplored in the empirical literature on sports leagues. This paper combines detailed census of population data with panel data on team performance for an open sports league, the English Football League, to test the hypothesis that market size matters for team performance. We find a particularly important role for population close to the team's location. The impact of local population is reduced but not eliminated when allowance is made for entry in the form of competition from neighboring clubs. We assess implications of these findings for both European and North American sports league structures.     

Firm-specific human capital in different market conditions: Evidence from the Japanese football league

This paper examined how and the extent to which obtaining skills to meet team specific human capital is important to improve football player’s performance by comparing the top league and the second league. Based on panel data of individual players during the 2012–2016 seasons of the Japan Professional Football League (J League), we found; (1) In the top-league, changing team reduced player’s performance and their performance improved as player’s tenure of the team and also tenure of J League increased. (2) returns from acquiring team specific skills on time of play in the game increase and then decrease as years have passed. (3) benefit from moving team depends on the timing of moving, and so rookie players can benefit from moving when team tenure reach 4 years or more. (4) In the second league, neither team tenure nor experience of the professional football player does not influence player’s performance.     

Sport as Business

There is both a popular and academic literature suggesting thatowners of sports teams do not profit maximize. The alternativeformulation entails either win or utility maximization, usuallysubject to a break-even constraint. Another line of economicanalysis holds that team owners do fundamentally profit maximizeor that profit maximization provides a useful benchmark againstwhich to assess actual performance. There has been some empiricalwork attempting to decipher the true objective function of teamowners. These results are inconclusive. Objective functions,however, remain important because they affect both owner behaviourand league performance. In practice, owners' objectives varyby team, league, and country and are strongly affected by howthe team relates to an owner's other assets. The next task formodelling the behaviour and performance of sports leagues isto take fuller account of the diversity of ownership objectiveswithin a given league.     

Team promotion in early major league baseball and the origin of the closed sports league

I argue that a quasi team-promotion system similar to European professional sports leagues once existed in the US, contrary to common perceptions. The first American pro team sport was baseball. From the creation of the first major league in 1876 to the early 1890s, entry was common, occurring primarily by the “promotion” of clubs in operation the previous season. The informal system ended abruptly after an 1892 merger that formed the prototype closed monopoly sports league. Empirical analysis indicates that the cessation of entry reduced competitive balance, and that in their initial year promoted teams outperformed new start-ups. While historians have recognized the elimination of between-league competition as an underlying motive for the monopoly merger, the simultaneous elimination of club entry and competition for league membership has gone virtually unnoticed.     

Determinants of Attendance in the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League: Role of Winning,Scoring, and Fighting

Attendance in the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League was studied for the 2009 to 2010 season. This junior league, part of the Canadian Hockey League system, serves as a development league for teenage players who attempt to parlay their participation in this league into a professional career. Fan demand for this level of hockey is found to be sensitive to the success of the home team and to exhibit normal consumer responses to weekday and monthly effects with weekends being more popular and attendance increasing throughout the season toward the playoffs. On-ice factors such as scoring, a proxy for excitement, and fighting are not shown to have a significant effect on attendance.     

Managers,specific human capital,and firm productivity in major league baseball

Recent research on the role of managers in firms concentrates on the relationship between compensation and individual performance, which links managerial skills and firm production only indirectly. In this paper, two related analyses test this link directly by examining how the experience of major league baseball managers affects both team and individual player performance. Grouped-data probit estimates indicate that, with team skills held constant, the probability of winning depends on the baseball-specific human capital of the manager. Further estimates, using the first-stage managerial attributes, also indicate that individual player performance improves when traded to "better-trained" managers.     

The Cost of Discrimination: A Study of Major League Baseball

This article seeks to determine whether discriminators perform differently than nondiscriminators, whether that performance difference serves to inhibit discrimination, and, if so, how the process works. It investigates an area with abundant data on both the racial mix of participants and firm performance—major league baseball. A sizeable and statistically significant relationship between winning and the presence of black players in the starting lineup is found to hold for the early years of the 1950s and to decline, as expected, as the average number of black ballplayers on major league rosters increased. However, a puzzle emerges in the fact that a significantly slower rate of integration was pursued in the American League (AL) than in the National League (NL) despite there being nearly identical associations between black players and winning in each. The most likely solution to that puzzle is that fan preferences differed—each black player on an AL team appears to have reduced attendance by significantly more than he would have on a NL team. Examination also reveals that when substitute players are considered separately, the positive association between the number of blacks employed and winning is much weaker, whereas the negative association between black ballplayers and attendance is the same. Not coincidentally, black players made up a significantly smaller proportion of substitutes than they did of starters throughout the entire period.     

Evaluating Subsidies for Professional Sports in the United States and Europe: A Public-Sector Primer

The character of subsidies for the construction of professionalsports stadiums is changing in Europe and the United States.The incidence of these subsidies and the manner in which theyare changing offers insight into an evolving relationship betweenthe public and private sectors in building sports facilities.The changing financial imperatives this paper identifies andanalyses suggest that the myopic concerns of cities coupledwith powerful financial incentives for leagues and teams tobuild stadiums account for the spate of facilities constructedin the USA since Joe Robbie stadium in 1987. Growing publicscepticism and resistance to stadium construction has been responsiblefor the private sector bearing a larger portion of the stadiumconstruction costs, but teams have been more than compensatedwith increasingly generous leases. Cities have placated thepublic through the imposition of taxes that are either too smallper capita to justify strong resistance or through deflectingthe tax burden stadiums impose to non-residents. Since citiestaken together are adopting the same strategies, the realityis that stadiums collectively are being paid for by local taxpayers.The public will continue to pay for stadiums until cities recognizetheir shared interests and take a collective stand against theprofessional sports monopolies. As long as the leagues continueto maintain an excess team for franchises, cities will continueto comply with team and league financial demands while searchingfor ways to placate an increasingly sceptical taxpaying public.     

Stadiums and Scheduling: Measuring Deadweight Losses in the Victorian Football League, 1920–70

Over a 50 year period, Australian Rules football's major league, the Victorian Football League, did not always use its largest and best-equipped stadium for regular season games between its most popular teams or schedule those teams to play twice in a regular season. We calculate deadweight losses from the use of capital goods (stadiums) and effects of match scheduling in this professional sports league. Such analysis has not been attempted previously because of the absence of a counterfactual. The welfare losses were significant but not sufficient to threaten the survival of a distance-protected cartel.     

An organizational alternative for academics: A sporting proposal

Conclusion Whether the distribution of talent among schools should be more equal or less equal is a statement having both positive and normative aspects. Like the distribution of income, one would suspect that there is considerable disagreement over the desired amount of equality in academic markets. And it is likely that perfect equality would exact an efficiency price. In the hitting department, for instance, many scholars benefit from agglomeration economies which might not exist under the proposed system.An additional equity versus efficiency issue relates to the training of new players: while the average quality of training might rise, the training from the top handful of major league teams would likely decline over time as the lower ranked teams drafted the top prospects and acquired free agents. On the other hand, the stigma of being employed by a lower-level team would not be so onerous, since most top draft choices would be expected to go to such teams.Since economists speak so often of formal models, it is obvious that the economics profession should get its own house in order first. The work incentives, risk definition, and pure joy of competition are all instrumental in the choice of this particular structural model. While it may not be a perfect model in terms of efficiency or the equity notions of some members of the profession, it may well be preferable to the status quo.     

浅析虚拟团队的优势与影响成功的因素

虚拟团队是社会经济一体化的产物.虚拟团队与其它团队形式相比较,虽然具有成本优势、人才优势、效率优势,但是仍有一些因素制约着它的成功,例如任务的选择、团队的选拔、沟通、信任及激励与约束机制等。只有对症下药解决这些问题,才能促成它的成功。     

浅析学校体育是社区体育发展的助力

我国经济取得巨大成就的同时人民生活水平也日益提高,人们更注重生活品质的问题,个人的体质与健康水平成为人们日常生活关注较高的焦点。社区体育是推动《全民建身计划纲要》的有效方法,而学校体育恰恰为社区体育的发展提供了必要的帮助。学校体育所培养的人才资源,完备的设施场地资源,及先进的体育理念与健身意识都为社区体育的发展提供了便利。     

Managerial Discretion and Task Interdependence in Teams

This study investigates whether task interdependence in teams alters the effectiveness of managerial discretion in motivating team performance. Teams are particularly useful when employees' tasks are interdependent—that is, when the degree to which the increase in team performance resulting from a team member's effort depends on the effort and skills of the other team members. The reason is that the more interdependent tasks are, the more employees need to coordinate their actions and help one another to achieve their objectives. Prior research analyzing settings where task interdependence is absent suggests that providing managers with discretion over team bonus allocation can improve team performance relative to equal team bonus allocations because it strengthens the link between contributions to team output and rewards. Economic theory suggests that managerial discretion will also improve team performance when task interdependence is present and information is efficiently used. However, we use behavioral theory to predict that managerial discretion is less effective in the presence of task interdependence, because managers do not fully incorporate all relevant information into bonus decisions and because managerial discretion hurts coordination and helping, which is particularly problematic under task interdependence. We find that while discretion over compensation has a positive effect on team performance relative to equal bonus allocation when task interdependence is absent, it has a negative effect when task interdependence is present. Additional analyses provide support for our underlying theory. Results of our study contribute to both theory and practice by suggesting that, ironically, managerial discretion may be most useful when the potential benefits of employing teams are lowest and least useful when the potential benefits are highest. Our results help explain why firms often grant managers only partial or no discretion over team members' compensation.     

民办高校广播电视编导专业师资队伍建设困境与策略——以重庆人文科技学院（原西南大学育才学院）为例

民办高校广播电视编导专业师资队伍建设是其发展的关键，而其职称、年龄、学源结构不合理的现象明显，教师专业技能水平亦不能满足创作实践教学的需要。优化师资结构应该结合民办高校实际，在引进和培养教师方面建立全新模式，以提高教师科研、创作实践能力为重要抓手，创立适合广播电视编导专业特色的教师类型模式与薪酬制度，规范人才引进模式与...     

创新链全覆盖的高质量科技创新人才体系建设研究——以四川省科技创新人才体系建设为例

全球科技创新竞争,归根结底是科技创新人才的竞争。党的十九大明确将人才强国战略确定为国家战略。四川省在落实人才强国战略、加快由要素驱动转型为创新驱动的过程中,不断提升科技创新人才队伍规模和质量,但相比沿海发达地区,仍存在人才数量不足、结构不合理、政策落地不到位等问题。文章提出通过加强科技创新人才队伍顶层设计、构建“技术经纪人”人才服务体系、优化科技创新人才机制体制、加大科技创新人才开放、合作和交流等措施,构建“全方位、多层次”“创新链全覆盖”的高质量科技创新人才体系。     

Damaged exports: Dynamics and limits of governance reform in Southeast Asia

Governance reform is the main policy for a number of international and domestic aid agencies. Under the rubric of governance reform are diverse programs ranging from those for anti‐corruption to those for civil society promotion programs. Although these programs have had limited success, governance programs are continually being promoted and implemented byinternational organizations and political forces in developing, newly industrialized states. Why? One reason for this persistence is that these programs—despite failing in their erstwhile objectives—nevertheless constitute a shift in modes through which power is exercised. These programs often create new modalities of political rule, which form the basis of new state strategies. This paper draws particular attention to the importance of governance programs in nurturing new forms of political rule through a process of depoliticization.     

黑龙江少数民族体育项目在全民健身中的作用

黑龙江省是一个多民族居住的边疆地区,独特的地理自然环境形成了东北的地域体育文化。少数民族传统体育作为民族文化的一个组成部分,既有竞技性较强的体育形式,又包含有娱乐性、趣味性和健身性较强的体育内容。随着《全民健身计划纲要》在全社会的范围内的不断实施和推动,民族传统体育的社会影响会越来越大,其群众性体育活动中主干的优势将会愈发显现,这是现代竞技体育项目难以取代的。因此,如何正确认识民族传统体育在全民健身活动中的优势,采取正确的手段引导其充分发挥作用,是当前民族传统体育与全民健身运动融合过程中值得研究与探讨的问题。     

Subjectivity in Professionals' Incentive Systems: Differences between Promotion‐ and Performance‐Based Assessments

We examine how managers assess performance and promotion prospects—that is, the ex ante likelihood of promotion—and the conditions under which these assessments diverge. We argue that managers apply different cognitive schemas when they make different assessments. To the extent that a signal provides different information about future versus current contributions, assessed performance and promotion prospects are likely to diverge. In two experiments, we manipulate professionals' promotion eligibility and level of consultative decision making. We find that experienced managers assess performance and promotion prospects differently, but only when professionals are promotion eligible. Specifically, more (as opposed to less) consultative decision making decreases promotion prospects while not affecting assessed performance (Experiment 1) or even improving it (Experiment 2). By contrast, more consultative decision making improves both assessments when professionals are not eligible for promotion. We shed light on the relations between subjective assessments, including that promotion is not necessarily the consequence of superior assessed performance.     

The demand for minor league baseball

Conclusions Overall our model explains 80 percent of the variation in attendance at minor league baseball games for 27 teams over the 1973–77 seasons. This is a remarkable proportion of the variance to be explained by a pooled cross-section-time-series model with 86 observations. Demmert's model explained 58 percent of the variation in per capita attendance in major league baseball over the 1951–69 period and Noll's model explained 69 percent of the variation in absolute attendance at major league baseball games during 1970–71. The F-ratio indicates that our overall model is statistically significant.Our empirical estimation of the demand for minor league baseball attendance supports the general hypotheses one derives from the theory of consumer demand. As expected, the quantity demanded is negatively related to price; the elasticity of demand is less than one. Per capita income has little effect on attendance, but the quality and excitement of play seem to be important to fans. Surprisingly, winning has no effect on attendance. Promotional efforts appear to be effective in generating attendance, but paid advertising seems to be wholly ineffective.The authors received helpful comments on an earlier draft from Al Finegan, Robert Hays, Ira Horowitz, Larry Nelson and an anonymous referee. A less technical report on the subject of this article has been published inBusiness (January–February, 1980) by the same authors.