Foreign Direct Investment and the Incentives to Innovate and Imitate*

We propose a new channel of FDI spillovers on domestic firms, which operates through imitation of original products. Domestic heterogeneous firms may not introduce any new products, introduce a new product line (innovate), or develop a variety that is a close substitute to an existing product line (imitate). The presence of foreign firms generates incentives for imitation because they introduce original products that are vertically differentiated from domestic products. Using firm‐level panel data for China, we find that increased FDI presence in a given industry leads to more imitation, but not necessarily more innovation, by domestic firms.     

A theory of competitive industry dynamics with innovation and imitation

Empirical evidence on industry life-cycle reveals a pattern in which innovation rates remain fairly stable or are perhaps even higher at early stages, while patenting increases sharply as the industry matures. This increase in patenting in later stages is accompanied by net exit and lower rates of output growth and price decline. In this paper, we develop a dynamic model of a competitive industry with innovation and imitation that is consistent with these stylized facts. We derive an equilibrium growth path, along which leading firms invest in increasing the stock of technological knowledge and choose not to prevent imitation by other firms as long as the industry remains relatively small. As the industry expands including new entry, the leaders' optimal amount of investment gradually declines. We show that under some rather general conditions, there would exist a scale of the industry where innovating firms would choose to start preventing free imitation, bringing further expansion of the industry through new entry to a halt and causing net exit.     

企业的核心能力与模仿式创新路径——新兴国家的视角

本文从新兴国家的视角,对企业战略研究中的核心能力及其与创新之间的关系进行了研究,提出了二者相互演化的观点,并由此得到新兴国家企业创新的发展路径模型。对于目前普遍关注的企业创新与模仿,笔者认为这是一个渐进过渡的过程。对于大部分成长中的新兴国家企业,单纯鼓励原创式创新,不但成本高昂、风险巨大,而且也不利于企业的核心能力构建。本文提出了模仿式创新的思路,对于广大发展中国家的企业将更具有理论与实践意义。     

Intellectual property rights and quality improvement

This paper explores why theories about the effects of intellectual property rights (IPR) protection on foreign direct investment (FDI) and innovation have reached mixed conclusions. In our model, Northern firms innovate to improve the quality of existing products and may later shift production to the South through FDI. Southern firms may then imitate the products of multinationals. We find that imitation can increase FDI and innovation for quality improvements, whereas the opposite occurs when innovators develop new varieties. Hence, stronger IPR protection, by reducing imitation, may shift innovation away from improvements in existing products toward development of new products.     

Diversity of technology acquisition in technological catch-up: an industry-level analysis of Chinese manufacturing

Using panel data analysis for an industry-level sample of Chinese manufacturing industries from 2000 to 2009, the study examines how latecomers dynamically adapt technology acquisition strategy in terms of technology acquisition diversity during the transition process from imitation to innovation. Our research considers technology acquisition as a portfolio of technology channels and thus examines the impact of technology gap between domestic firms and foreign firms on technology acquisition strategy at the industry level. The findings reveal that technology gap positively affects technology acquisition diversity of Chinese manufacturing industries. Further, it shows that technological uncertainty weakens the positive impact of technology gap on diversity of technology acquisition.     

Schumpeterian dynamics: An evolutionary model of innovation and imitation

This paper develops a simple evolutionary model of innovation and imitation. It analyzes how dynamic interactions between equilibrating force of imitation and disequilibrating force of innovation mold the evolutionary pattern of an industry's state of technology and shows that in this Schumpeterian world the industry will never approach a neoclassical equilibrium with perfect knowlwdge even in the long run. The paper also examines the steady-state efficiency distribution of firms that characterizes the industry's long run and obtains some comparative dynamics results.     

Imitation and innovation driven development under imperfect intellectual property rights

Developing countries employ about two-fifth of the world's researchers, originate one quarter of world expenditures on R&D, and their inventions are subject to imitation. Nevertheless, the previous literature focuses on North–South setups in which the South is restricted to imitating northern inventions. To analyze the effects of IPR policies on developed and developing countries, we extend this literature to allow not only for southern innovation and imitation of northern goods, but also for imitation targeted at southern innovations. We find the effects of IPRs on R&D and welfare to be non-monotonic and dependent on innovation efficiency and an innovation threshold in the South. For sufficiently strong IPRs the South engages in original R&D and stronger IPRs promote southern innovation, welfare, and a reduction in the North–South wage gap. Below the threshold, a strengthening of IPR protection fails to promote innovation and decreases welfare. Stronger IPRs exclusively for southern firms can benefit both regions by shifting southern resources from the imitation of northern goods to original southern innovation.     

SOUTHERN INNOVATION AND REVERSE KNOWLEDGE SPILLOVERS: A DYNAMIC FDI MODEL*

We develop a general equilibrium model of endogenous innovation and foreign direct investment (FDI). In the benchmark model, Northern firms innovate with the help of localized spillovers, and a share of new products is transferred to Southern production via FDI. An increase in Southern imitation risk reduces this share. In the extended model, we permit higher‐cost Southern innovation, which yields inefficient specialization in both regions and reduces global growth. However, it generates a U‐shaped relationship between FDI and local imitation. We also allow for “reverse” spillovers in knowledge to Northern innovation, which partially restore global efficiency and growth.     

An evolutionary model of long term cyclical variations of catching up and falling behind

We generalize a single-country model of endogenous growth to the case of a multi-country world economy in which technology transfer and behavioral imitation are the possible means of interaction between countries. The model is evolutionary in the sense that the economies are disaggregated by behaviourally heterogeneous firms, market selection occurs, and the innovation process is uncertain and stochastic. We demonstrate that this structure leads to a complex process of convergence and divergence over time that can be characterized as 1/f noise. Spectral analysis of measures of convergence for six core OECD countries in the period 1870–1989 reveals a similar pattern in the empirical data.     

Catch-up strategy of latecomer firms in Asia: a case study of innovation ambidexterity in PC industry

ABSTRACT

Over the last decade, more and more East Asian firms have moved beyond imitation and are delivering innovative products and services to the market. This study examines (a) how a latecomer firm in East Asia transformed its business model in pursuit of manufacturing its own brand and (b) how it managed its exploration and exploitation of the market and technology in response to growth and competition. Given the lack of research on firms transitioning from contract manufacturing (CM) to own-brand manufacturing (OBM), this study offers fresh insights into how Acer, a leading Taiwanese original equipment manufacturer (OEM), has pursued new ways of creating value using an innovation ambidexterity strategy to maximise its customer value and boost performance.

Acer is chosen for this case study because of its significance and impact in the global PC industry. Data were collected through interviews and secondary data analysis. Our findings show that innovation ambidexterity is a deliberate transition process, taking firms years to reshape their business models. Our findings also present a viable solution to sustainable competitive advantage and keys to firms’ renewal in face of environmental change. This study contributes to the innovation management literature, and the use of the innovation ambidexterity framework examines how firms explore new ways of creating and capturing value and face challenges.     

Cooperation or competition in R&D when innovation and absorption are costly

This article analyzes cost-reducing R&D investments by firms that behave non-cooperatively or cooperatively. Firms face a trade-off between allocating their R&D investments to innovate or to imitate (absorb). We find that the non-cooperative behavior not only induces more imitation (absorption) but also, for the most part, more innovation investments. Only the cooperative behavior, however, ensures that R&D investments are allocated efficiently to innovation and to imitation (absorption) in the sense that any given amount of industry-wide cost reduction is obtained for the minimum overall R&D costs.     

基于破坏性创新的中小企业创新战略研究

长期以来,理论界认为跟随和模仿等维持性创新战略是中小企业的首选。然而,随着信息社会的到来,技术更新速度的日益加快,专利保护制度的不断加强,给上述战略的实施带来巨大困难,出现反复模仿、持续落后的现象。破坏性创新的非竞争性和对产业竞争规则的破坏性特性,为中小企业在激烈的市场竞争中扬长避短,击败行业领头羊提供了一条崭新的思路。根据破坏性创新的特征,结合中小企业自身的特点,分析了中小企业开展破坏性创新的优势及劣势,探讨了中小企业开展破坏性创新的一般模式及路径。     

The influence of the regional context on firms’ innovation patterns: evidence from Ecuador*

ABSTRACT

Using data from the Ecuadorean Innovation Survey of 2015, this paper identifies the innovation patterns that can be found in Ecuador. In addition, we analyse the influence of the regional innovation systems in determining these patterns. The results show that there are six differentiated patterns of innovation, although they all are related to the adoption and imitation of technologies. Finally, we observe that different regional characteristics condition the way in which firms organise innovation.     

收入水平、金融结构与国家技术创新研究

利用85个国家1989—2011年的跨国数据,实证检验不同收入水平下,金融结构对国家技术创新的影响差异。结果显示,高收入水平国家偏向于金融市场的金融结构更加有利于技术创新。基于新结构经济学理论思想,对该结果进行了解释：不同收入水平国家的创新结构不同,即自主研发和模仿创新的比例不同。从事自主研发和模仿创新的企业在风险特征、企业规模方面具有差异,这要求不同比例的金融市场和银行信贷与之匹配。由此,创新结构决定技术创新视角下的最优金融结构。因此,在特定发展阶段,存在与之相匹配的最能有效促进技术创新的金融结构。该结论强调了考虑发展阶段因素的必要性,为新结构经济学相关理论提供了新的实证证据,也具有明确的政策含义。     

Analyzing the innovation process for environmental performance improvement

This paper elaborates the concept of demand articulation in product innovation to analyze innovation for environmental improvement. A conceptual framework has been developed that allows analysis of social demand articulation, the process that stimulates firms toward environmental innovation. Knowledge and information flows that raise the technological capability and awareness level of firms and consumers for environmental improvement are discerned. Their indicators have been developed based on the number of research papers and newspaper articles on environmental issues, respectively. Statistically significant results have been obtained on the role of knowledge and information flows on environmental innovations. Use of the framework on case studies revealed knowledge and information flows on local air quality and global warming led to the development of high-efficiency, low-emission automobiles. In conclusion, social demand articulation is an effective process by which knowledge and information flows mobilize the requisites needed for a successful environmental innovation.     

集群企业资源获取、吸收能力与技术创新绩效——珠三角传统产业集群中的企业研究

以珠三角传统产业集群中的企业为研究对象,从资源依赖理论出发,探索集群企业技术创新的影响因素和路径。构建了资源获取、吸收能力与技术创新绩效的概念模型,编制问卷,并使用结构方程模型对其进行检验。结果表明,企业的"软资源的获取"(信息、技术、人才)能够积极提高企业的潜在吸收能力,进而促进企业的模仿创新和率先创新。企业的"硬资源的获取"(资金)虽然可以提高企业的现实吸收能力,但对两种技术创新的作用都不显著。根据所得结论,从企业、政府、行业协会3个方面提出要构建良好的外部网络和发展环境,促进其资源获取从而提高企业的技术创新绩效。     

竞争战略与技术创新关系的实证研究

以272家江苏省民营制造企业为研究对象,实证研究了企业的竞争战略与技术创新的关系。研究发现:实施低成本战略的企业进行工艺创新和产品创新的倾向均不明显,实施差异化战略的企业倾向于进行产品创新,实施混合战略的企业进行工艺创新和产品创新的倾向都明显,且实施强度显著高于实施低成本战略和差异化战略的企业;总体来看,所有企业的工艺创新强度都要高于其产品创新强度,产品创新强度整体偏低,这意味着企业转型升级的重点应放在产品创新上。     

Knowledge codification and technological innovation success: Empirical evidence from Spanish biotech companies

This paper analyzes the influence of knowledge codification on technological innovation in a sample of Spanish firms from the biotechnology sector. It tests how codification affects firms' development of incremental and radical innovations and their attempts to keep their investments exclusive by building barriers to imitation and to substitution. The work also considers the incorporation of legal protection measures. The results show, on the one hand, that knowledge codification is only beneficial for developing incremental innovations and, on the other, that firms must incorporate systems of legal protection into their codification practices if they want to keep their innovations exclusive.     

Configurations of innovation: predictable and maverick modes

This study reports on an investigation of modes of innovation in 43 firms in six industrial sectors: (i) pulp and paper; (ii) computer. services; (iii) pharmaceucticals; (iv) apparel; (v) metallic products; and (vi) financial brokerage services. A model incorporating context, process, strategy, organization and performance variables was built to serve as a base to identify empirical conjfigurations of models of innovation. Configurations are gestalts of variables that describe particular modes of innovative behaviour. The model includes uariables representing context, process, strategy, organization and performance. Modes of innovations were found to he highly sector-specific. In fact, most firms innovate in predictable ways, in conformity with the logic of innovation in their industrial environment. A significant minority of firms, however, adopt maverick behaviours, similar to modes of innovation that prevail in other industries. Modes of innovation thus cut across industry lines as a result of firm's combetencies, competitive situationes or managerial preferences. A taxonomy of modes of innovation cutting across industry lines is presented. The configurations which emerged from the data analysis were: science-based product innovators; (ii) entrepreneurial fast-track experimenters; (iii) global cost leaders; (iv) lethargic reliance on information technology and (v) on process adaptation.     

Innovation and imitation as an interactive process

This article deals with the problem of the coexistence of innovators and imitators in a competitive market. The study proposes a model of innovation and diffusion of productive knowledge as an interactive process between innovators and imitators under conditions of dynamic uncertainty. The process can be modelled as a Stackelberg game, where the innovator acts as a leader in choosing whether to share knowledge or set up private protection and the imitator as a follower in choosing when becoming active. Under these conditions, activation thresholds are derived for both innovators and imitators. If protection policies are effective, the imitator can be trapped into an inaction region by the innovator. Thus, there will be two regimes without and with diffusion, according to whether the inaction region is enacted or not. Under these conditions, discovery and diffusion appear to be dynamic complements, as a higher speed of activation of innovating firms is favoured by a higher level of imitation and a higher speed of activation of imitating firms is favoured by a higher level of discoveries. In order to explore some of the quantitative implications of these results, the paper also proposes an application of the model to four European countries.