Problems and lessons of Japanese technology policy

Statistics on Japanese R & D reveal various problems of policy and implementation. Some difficulties of Japanese technological development and possibilities for overcoming them are discussed. Among others a fundamental problem is the generation of technology with less reliance on Western support. The relationship between the need for self-generated technology and the fact of excessive reliance on technology imports is discussed in regard to superiority, inferiority and appropriateness of Japanese technology. Innovation in the Japanese automobile and iron and steel industries is characterized as integrative or combinatory innovation associated with managerial innovation. The conditions under which integrative innovation is effective are identified, and these conditions are expected to be valid for many other sectors. Finally, the mechanism of government–industry cooperation in Japan is identified as an informational control system in contrast to the financial control system in Western countries, and the major medium of control by the Japanese government is identified as technological forecasting information.
These characteristics of Japanese technology management can be held up as valuable lessons for other countries given certain conditions which are expected to hold in many fields.     

创新资源协同主体行为的演化博弈分析

创新资源是支撑社会发展的战略资源,创新资源协同主体的行为对创新资源协同起到重要作用,在对政府、企业、高校及科研院所、科技中介机构之间的关系和协同方式进行分析的基础上,运用演化博弈理论,分析企业、高校及科研院所作为博弈主体在有无其他协同主体作用情况下的动态演化过程,并找出在各个主体参与下影响两方长期协同稳定的因素,据此提出相应的政策建议。     

合作研发装备制造业共性关键技术的组织创新战略研究

合作研发装备制造业共性技术可以实现资源共享、优势互补,分散研发风险,有效提升装备制造业的自主创新能力.要加强企业、高校、研发机构与政府的合作,构建装备制造业共性关键技术合作研发的组织模式,合理选择和开展共性技术研发活动,建立装备制造业共性技术研发组织的良性运行机制,以提升装备制造业乃至整个国家和地区的技术核心竞争力.     

高校科技创新、技术溢出与区域技术进步——基于2002~2014 年数据的实证研究

本文运用Eviews7.2 软件，采用面板数据模型实证研究了高校科技创新对我国区域技术进步的影响，得到了面板数据回归结果。结果表明，高校R&D 人员投入和专利技术产出对中部和西部地区的技术进步起着显著的促进作用，R&D 经费投入对中部、西部及东北地区的技术进步起着阻碍作用，同时科技论文产出对区域技术进步的影响不显著。这表明高校应当改革传统的以论文数量、科研经费为导向的高校科研考核制度，改进和完善科研评价体系，加强人才队伍建设，整合人才资源，形成优秀的科研团队，同时要加强产学研合作，建立企业与高校之间的信息平台，从而实现信息交流和资源共享，促进高校的科技成果向企业转化。     

Divergent patterns of engagement in Internet standardization: Japan,Korea and China

This article analyzes the engagement of Japanese, Korean and Chinese participants in the development of Internet standards at IETF on the basis of four quantitative metrics: attendance, patenting, authorship and leadership. The results are strikingly divergent. Japanese involvement in Internet standardization began early and Japan was, for many years, second only to the U.S. in terms of IETF participation. Though Japanese participation has declined since the early 2000s, Japan remains a major contributor to IETF standardization. Korean involvement in IETF has always been significant, but below the levels of Japan and major European countries. Korean participation in IETF has also declined over the past decade, and has been dominated by one firm, Samsung. Though meaningful Chinese involvement in IETF did not begin until the mid-2000s, it has rapidly expanded in recent years. Today, China is a major player in numerous areas of Internet standardization in terms of three metrics (participation, patenting and leadership), and is rapidly gaining in terms of document authorship as well. Most of China׳s recent IETF involvement can be attributed to Huawei, though other Chinese firms have recently begun to increase their participation in the organization. Thus, contrary to some views that China׳s engagement with standardization is primarily one of indigenous innovation and “catching up”, China׳s experience with IETF demonstrates deliberate and effective engagement with a major Western standards-development organization on its own terms.     

The future labour market for R&D Manpower in The Netherlands

An adequate supply of qualified research and development (R&D) personnel is an important precondition for a government policy that aims for a strongly knowledge-intensive economic growth. As in many other OECD countries, there is great concern in The Netherlands about meeting this crucial condition in the next decades. This article tries to show to what extent this current concern is justified. For that purpose, forecasts of future supply and demand for research manpower in the science and engineering fields (including agriculture and health) have been produced, extending to the year 2010. Sensitivity analyses show that the fore-casts are not very sensitive to alternative assumptions on economic growth, investments, replacement demand and labour supply.
From a methodological point of view the forecasting approach differs from the more traditional manpower forecasting. Firstly, the demand for R&D personnel is split up into an increase in total employment for R&D manpower ( expansion demand ) on the one hand, and, on the other hand, the need for replacements for researchers who retire, die or switch to other occupations ( replacement demand ). Expansion and replacement demand are considered in three sectors of R&D work: universities, research institutes and private enterprises. Expansion demand and replacement demand together determine the job openings for newcomers. These job openings are confronted with the supply of new R&D manpower, which is largely determined by the output of the educational system. The confrontation of demand and supply forecasts shows that, in general, severe shortages of R & D manpower will result if there are not adequate manpower policy adjustment. The article closes with a discussion of the policy implications of the expected disequilibria in the market for R & D manpower.     

Innovation Process and Outcomes for Large Japanese Firms: Roles of Entrepreneurial Proclivity and Customer Equity

The authors investigate the structural relationships among entrepreneurial proclivity, innovation process characteristics (technological strength, marketing strength, and marketing–R&D integration), and customer equity in achieving business growth and financial return in the Japanese context. Following field interviews and a pilot test, survey data are collected from 207 pairs of marketing and R&D executives from strategic business units (SBUs) of large manufacturing companies in Japan. Based on the partial least squares analysis of data, the authors find nuanced effects of organizations' entrepreneurial proclivity on the critical organizational process, resource, and business performance. The study theorizes and empirically supports the idea that customer equity is a potent intermediary outcome that contributes to both top‐line (growth) and the bottom‐line (ROI) of a business. Specifically, the study shows that: (1) entrepreneurial proclivity directly and positively influences technology strength, marketing strength, and marketing‐R&D integration; (2) entrepreneurial proclivity's effect on business growth and financial return is positive and mediated by customer equity; (3) marketing–R&D integration has a moderating effect on the positive impact of technology strength on customer equity; and (4) customer equity is a strong driver of business growth and financial return. There is a dearth of research on entrepreneurship in Asia; very few empirical studies have been reported from Japan in particular. This study contributes to boundary testing of the theoretical relationships. Although entrepreneurial proclivity appears to be an inspirational concept, its actual adoption remains an important question for many Japanese companies. Those Japanese firms that aspire to be entrepreneurial need to be mindful what innovation processes and resources it takes to fulfill the positive influences of entrepreneurship.     

Strategic action generation: A comparison of emphasis placed on generic competitive methods by U.S. And Japanese managers

The paper identifies similarities and differences in the emphases and patterns that U.S. and Japanese managers attribute to a set of 22 generic competitive methods. It highlights the different ways that Japanese and American managers combine these methods to form general business strategies. Using factor analyses and smallest space analyses, the study shows differences in business strategy patterns between managers in Japan and the U.S. Such differences reflect the organizing principles underlying the strategy approaches in U.S. and Japanese firms. The organizing principle underlying U.S. responses is the desire to find way to differentiate a firm from its competitors. In contrast, the organizing principle underlying Japanese responses is a desire to establish a comprehensive, stable and defensible position. The paper discusses the implications of these results for strategic management and suggests directions for future U.S. and Japanese comparative strategy research.     

The Economic Effects of Unionism on Japanese Manufacturing Enterprises

Abstract : This paper examines the relationship between unions and the economic performance of firms in the Japanese manufacturing sector. Although the effects of trade unions on the enterprise has been the subject of substantial research over the past decade, this research has focused almost exclusively on Western systems of industrial relations and union organization. In this study, Japanese enterprise unions were found to be associated with significantly lower levels of profit, lower productivity and higher levels of capital intensity. These results challenge the commonly held views of a subservient and dependent union movement in Japan.     

User benefits and operator costs of mobile number portability in Japan and impact on market competitiveness

This paper aims to review the process of mobile phone operators agreeing to introduce mobile number portability (MNP) in Japan. A study group formed by the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications estimated the proportion of MNP users and analyzed the user benefits and associated costs to introduce MNP. Owing to the particular market structure and technology available, MNP was expected to yield a larger benefit in the Japanese mobile market than that seen in other countries. Based on the results of the research reviewed with respect to the market situation one year after introducing MNP, the increased competition in the mobile phone market was onfirmed by decreasing call charges and a reduction in the share of the dominant operator.     

Joint Venture Satisfaction in Asia Pacific

Entering and developing a presence in the Asia-Pacific region has required, and in most cases, still requires the setting up of joint ventures with a local partner particularly when the prime motive of the operation is to capture opportunities in local markets.The objectives of the research presented in this article are to identify the factors which are associated with a satisfactory perception of joint ventures from the point of view of Western managers and to identify the major differences in joint venture characteristics across countries in the Asia-Pacific region. The conceptual perspective, based on transaction cost theory, is that foreign partners will show satisfaction if joint ventures are instrumental in achieving the Western partner's objectives and if co-operation costs are minimum given strategic fit, cultural fit and ability to controlThe analysis, using multiple regression based on survey data collected from 96 Western managers working in the Asia Pacific region, shows the predominance of the cultural and strategic fit factors in explaining the expressed satisfaction of Western managers. The ability to control the joint ventures is not related directly to satisfaction although it is very often quoted by Western managers as an important factor for the success of joint ventures.With regard to differences across regions, there are clearly four categories of countries: the highest expressed satisfaction is found in Japan, then in Indonesia and Malaysia, while China and Vietnam generate a moderate level of satisfaction, and Korea and Thailand a high level of dissatisfaction.     

《测量不确定度评定与表示》技术规范简介

如何定量地评定测量结果的质量是近代计量学中的一个重要问题,自1993年由ISO等7个国际组织对此作出了一致性的决定以来,他们联名公布的《测量不确定度评定指南》已普遍地为一些国家以及不同学科所接受,我国今年一月发布的JJF 1059技术规范基本上等同地采用了他们提出的原则.本文重点介绍了这个技术规范的中心问题,其中特别是对不确定度的理解、各种不确定度分量评定的方法及应注意的问题,不确定度分量的合成以及两种扩展不确定度的计算和表达中的问题.本文有助于读者对该技术规范的理解和运用.     

Strategic Alternatives in Emerging Industries

Managers of firms in emerging industries face major challenges in coping with the day-to-day crises that arise from constantly changing operating conditions. But they also face more subtle strategic challenges that have to be addressed successfully if the firm is ultimately to survive. Rod Macdonald says there are three basic strategic options for these firms, and in this article he provides the analysis to help managers think their way through the difficult choices.     

The Hypothesis–Testing Ordering System: A New Competitive Weapon of Japanese Convenience Stores in a New Digital Era

This study focuses on the store–ordering system practiced by Japanese convenience stores. The article examines (1) the conceptual categorization of such ordering systems, (2) the history of the system development at three major convenience stores, and (3) the characteristics of 7–Eleven's development that led the way toward an innovative ordering system.     

The Strategy and structure of top 100 Japanese industrial enterprises 1950–1970

This paper examines the strategic and structural development of the 100 largest Japanese manufacturing enterprises between 1950 and 1970. Unlike other studies of Japanese business the author focuses not only on some of the key differences between Western and Japanese firms such as the emergence of widely diversified industrial groups, but also on similarities. Using the model developed originally by Channon the author traces the development of diversification in Japan and the emergence of the multidivisional forms of organization which as in the West prove to be the major strategic and structural forms in Japan by 1970.     

Learning from Postproject Reviews: A Cross‐Case Analysis*

Every new product development (NPD) project should not only deliver a successful new product but also should generate learning for the organization. Postproject reviews (PPRs) are recognized by both practitioners and academics as an appropriate mechanism to stimulate and capture learning in NPD teams. However, relatively few companies use PPRs, and those that do use them often fail to do so effectively. Although they are widely perceived to be a useful tool, empirical research on how PPRs are typically organized and the learning that results is limited. The present article addresses this gap in the extant knowledge and describes five in‐depth case studies, which were conducted at leading companies in Germany. A detailed investigation was made of how PPRs are conducted and of the type of learning that can result. Three main sources of data were used for each case: company documentation, in‐depth interviews with managers responsible for NPD, and observation of an actual PPR. The different data sources enabled extensive triangulation of data to be conducted and a high degree of reliability and validity to be achieved. The analysis enabled a number of key characteristics of the way PPRs are managed to be identified. Various characteristics of PPRs influence their utility, such as the time at which they take place and the way discussions are moderated. In addition, the data show that participants in the discussions at PPRs often use metaphors and stories, which indicates that PPRs have the potential to generate tacit knowledge. Interestingly, the data also show that there are various different ways in which metaphors and stories appear to stimulate discussions on NPD projects. Based on the cross‐case analysis, a wide range of implications are identified. Researchers need to investigate PPRs further to identify how they can generate tacit and explicit knowledge and support project‐to‐project learning. The generation of tacit knowledge in NPD is a topic that particularly needs further investigation. The research also led to a range of recommendations for practitioners. Companies need to strongly communicate the purpose and value of PPRs, to run them effectively to stimulate the maximum possible learning, and to disseminate the findings widely. PPRs have the potential to create and transfer knowledge amongst NPD professionals, but, as they are seldom currently used, many companies are missing an important opportunity.     

Localisation of Japanese subsidiaries in Southeast Asia

The success story of Japanese firms, both in their home country and their overseas subsidiaries, has been the focus of comparative management research in the 1970s and early 1980s. Several scholars attributed the impressive productivity gains in Japanese industries to the basic principles of Japanese management. Further, they advocated the adoption of these principles by American and European businesses to solve employee morale and productivity problems. However, in recent years, the validity of the “happy worker” hypothesis in explaining the effectiveness of Japanese management has been seriously questioned. In fact, the results of several empirical studies indicate that Japanese firms are facing manpower management problems both at home and in their overseas subsidiaries. The main purpose of this article is to identify and discuss the Japanese management problems of overseas subsidiaries, based on several empirical studies of Japanese overseas subsidiaries undertaken by the authors of this article and other scholars during the last 17 years (1968 to 1985). These studies are:

Localisation Problems of Japanese Subsidiaries Overseas: A Comparative Study in Southeast-Asian Countries.

A comparative study of American, Japanese and local firms in Taiwan.

A comparative study of American, European and Japanese multinationals' subsidiaries in Brazil, Peru, India, Malaysia, Singapore, and Thailand.

A comparative study of American, German, and Japanese multinations in the United States, Western European countries, Australia, and Japan.

A comparative study of upper-level Japanese and American managers of subsidiaries of Japanese firms in the United States.

A comparative study of subsidiaries of American and Japanese multinationals in Singapore.

An intensive case study of a Japanese subsidiary in Australia.

     

关于高校服装设计专业合理添加设计管理的思考

传统高校服装设计培养出来的学生,进入社会以后面临一个重要问题:学生的主动创新和管理水平距优秀设计师的要求存在很大的差距,在竞争激烈的今天,名师设计已经作为一个有效的营销手段在世界各地各大国际或跨国公司得到重视,设计师除进行产品创新设计之外,用设计管理指导企业发展的模式也越来越受到重视,而在国内,这类人才极为罕见,从而构成中国品牌服装不能得到发展的一个很大的障碍之一。高效的设计管理目前在国内还是刚刚起步,作为教育先锋的高校部门合理设置设计管理课程能够提高学生整体素质,在培养多元化人才的环节中起到关键性的作用。     

Managerial problems of university-industry interaction

In post-war Poland, universities and higher schools of technology have had to take over not only the role of centres of intellectual activity, but also of animators of technological and economic life. Universities employ more than 60|X% of the total scientific staff of the country, so that the issue of university-industry cooperation is of major importance to them. Despite obstacles caused by the different needs of the two partners, there are many motives for both sides to cooperate, and the various forms the contract can take in practice are described. Design of the coupling is analysed in terms of a two-cycle model of technology transfer, and ways of strengthening the coupling between the two are elaborated. The extent of the university's involvement in research with industrial application is described. Specific measures need to be taken by university boards of management to ensure that this kind of work does not lead to undesirable limitation of scientific freedom in the choice of objects of research, and that the research profile is compatible with the educational programme of the university.     

British Science Parks: Reflections on the Politics of High Technology

Science parks—high technology property developments associated with universities—have suddenly proliferated in Britain. Local authorities, universities and public sector development agencies are now eager to exploit what seems an obvious way of stimulating high technology industry. Though much of their enthusiasm is a product of self interest, it is justified by arguments that science parks provide conditions conducive to high technology industry's prosperity. These arguments are hard to accept, but then so too is the reasoning that perceives easy and instant benefits from high technology. Such euphoria is in stark contrast to the reality that will probably face many British science parks. Keywords: science parks, high technology, universities, Britain, information flow.